Read Ebook: English Dialects From the Eighth Century to the Present Day by Skeat Walter W Walter William

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

DIALECTS AND THEIR VALUE

The modern meaning is somewhat more precise. In relation to a language such as English, it is used in a special sense to signify "a local variety of speech differing from the standard or literary language." When we talk of "speakers of dialect," we imply that they employ a provincial method of speech to which the man who has been educated to use the language of books is unaccustomed. Such a man finds that the dialect-speaker frequently uses words or modes of expression which he does not understand or which are at any rate strange to him; and he is sure to notice that such words as seem to be familiar to him are, for the most part, strangely pronounced. Such differences are especially noticeable in the use of vowels and diphthongs, and in the mode of intonation.

The speaker of the "standard" language is frequently tempted to consider himself as the dialect-speaker's superior, unless he has already acquired some elementary knowledge of the value of the science of language or has sufficient common sense to be desirous of learning to understand that which for the moment lies beyond him. I remember once hearing the remark made--"What is the good of dialects? Why not sweep them all away, and have done with them?" But the very form of the question betrays ignorance of the facts; for it is no more possible to do away with them than it is possible to suppress the waves of the sea. English, like every other literary language, has always had its dialects and will long continue to possess them in secluded districts, though they are at the present time losing much of that archaic character which gives them their chief value. The spread of education may profoundly modify them, but the spoken language of the people will ever continue to devise new variations and to initiate developments of its own. Even the "standard" language is continually losing old words and admitting new ones, as was noted long ago by Horace; and our so-called "standard" pronunciation is ever imperceptibly but surely changing, and never continues in one stay.

Green-bellied snakes, blue fire-drakes in the sky, And giddy flitter-mice with leather wings.

There is, in fact, no limit to the good use to which a reverent study of our dialects may be put by a diligent student. They abound with pearls which are worthy of a better fate than to be trampled under foot. I will content myself with giving one last example that is really too curious to be passed over in silence.

DIALECTS IN EARLY TIMES

The investigation of the differences of dialect in our early documents only dates from 1885, owing to the previous impossibility of obtaining access to these oldest texts. Before that date, it so happened that nearly all the manuscripts that had been printed or examined were in one and the same dialect, viz. the Southern . The language employed in these was named "Anglo-Saxon"; and the very natural mistake was made of supposing that this "Anglo-Saxon" was the sole language which served for all the "Angles" and "Saxons" to be found in the "land of the Angles" or England. This is the reason why it is desirable to give the more general name of "Old English" to the oldest forms of our language, because this term can be employed collectively, so as to include Northumbrian, Mercian, "Anglo-Saxon" and Kentish under one designation. The name "Anglo-Saxon" was certainly rather inappropriate, as the speakers of it were mostly Saxons and not Angles at all; which leads up to the paradox that they did not speak "English"; for that, in the extreme literal sense, was the language of the Angles only! But now that the true relationship of the old dialects is known, it is not uncommon for scholars to speak of the Wessex dialect as "Saxon," and of the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects as "Anglian"; for the latter are found to have some features in common that differ sharply from those found in "Saxon."

But specimens of the oldest forms of the Northern and Midland dialects are, on the other hand, very much fewer in number than students of our language desire, and are consequently deserving of special mention. They are duly enumerated in the chapters below, which discuss these dialects separately.

Having thus sketched out the broad divisions into which our dialects may be distributed, I shall proceed to enter upon a particular discussion of each group, beginning with the Northern or Northumbrian.

THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; TILL A.D. 1000

In Professor Earle's excellent manual on Anglo-Saxon Literature, chapter V is entirely occupied with "the Anglian Period," and begins thus:--"While Canterbury was so important a seminary of learning, there was, in the Anglian region of Northumbria, a development of religious and intellectual life which makes it natural to regard the whole brilliant period from the later seventh to the early ninth century as the Anglian Period.... Anglia became for a century the light-spot of European history; and we here recognise the first great stage in the revival of learning, and the first movement towards the establishment of public order in things temporal and spiritual."

Fore there neidfaerae naenig uuiurthit thonc-snotturra than him thar sie, to ymbhycggannae, aer his hin-ionge, huaet his gastae, godaes aeththa yflaes, aefter deoth-daege doemid uueorthe.

Literally translated, this runs as follows:

Before the need-journey no one becomes more wise in thought than he ought to be, to contemplate, ere his going hence, what for his spirit, of good or of evil, after death-day, will be adjudged.

He sang the Creation of the world, the origin of the human race, and all the history of Genesis; the departure of Israel out of Egypt and their entrance into the land of promise, with many other histories from holy writ; the incarnation, passion, and resurrection of our Lord, and His ascension into heaven; the coming of the Holy Spirit and the teaching of the Apostles. Likewise of the terror of the future judgement, the horror of punishment in hell, and the bliss of the heavenly kingdom he made many poems; and moreover, many others concerning divine benefits and judgements; in all which he sought to wean men from the love of sin, and to stimulate them to the enjoyment and pursuit of good action.

It happens that we still possess some poems which answer more or less to this description; but they are all of later date and are only known from copies written in the Southern dialect of Wessex; and, as the original Northumbrian text has unfortunately perished, we have no means of knowing to what extent they represent Caedmon's work. It is possible that they preserve some of it in a more or less close form of translation, but we cannot verify this possibility. It has been ascertained, on the other hand, that a certain portion of these poems is adapted, with but slight change, from an original poem written in the Old Saxon of the continent.

Nu scylun hergan hefaenricaes uard, metudaes maecti end his modgidanc, uerc uuldurfadur; sue he uundra gihuaes, eci Dryctin, or astelidae. He aerist scop aelda barnum heben til hrofe, haleg scepen. Tha middungeard moncynnaes uard, eci Dryctin, aefter tiadae firum fold, frea allmectig.

I here subjoin a literal translation.

Now ought we to praise the warden of heaven's realm, the Creator's might and His mind's thought, the works of the Father of glory; as He, of every wonder, eternal Ruler, established the beginning. He first shaped, for the sons of men, heaven as roof, the holy Creator. The middle world , mankind's warden, eternal Ruler, afterwards prepared, the world for men-- Almighty Lord.

The locality of these lines is easily settled, as we may assign them to Whitby. Similarly, Beda's Death-song may be assigned to the county of Durham.

The two quotations in front are as follows: it will be seen that the cross itself is supposed to be the speaker.

The two quotations at the back are these:

The literal meaning of the lines is as follows:

In the late MS. it is the cross that is wounded by arrows; whereas in the runic inscription it seems to be implied that it was Christ Himself that was so wounded. The allusion is in any case very obscure; but the latter notion makes the better sense, and is capable of being explained by the Norse legend of Balder, who was frequently shot at by the other gods in sport, as he was supposed to be invulnerable; but he was slain thus one day by a shaft made of mistletoe, which alone had power to harm him.

Coming down to the tenth century, we meet with three valuable documents, all of which are connected with Durham, generally known as the Durham Ritual and the Northumbrian Gospels.

aehto pundo of thaem aworden is Adam pund lames of thon Octo pondera de quibus factus est Adam. Pondus limi, inde

aworden is flaesc pund fyres of thon read is blod and hat factus est caro; pondus ignis, inde rubeus est sanguis et calidus;

pund saltes of thon sindon salto tehero pund deawes of thon pondus salis, inde sunt salsae lacrimae; pondus roris, unde

aworden is swat pund blostmes of thon is fagung egena factus est sudor; pondus floris, inde est uarietas oculorum;

thohta mentium;

pund windes of thon is oroth cald pund gefe of thon is pondus uenti, inde est anhela frigida: pondus gratiae, id est

thoht monnes sensus hominis.

We thus learn that Adam's flesh was made of a pound of loam; his red and hot blood, of fire; his salt tears, of salt; his sweat, of dew; the colour of his eyes, of flowers; the instability of his thoughts, of cloud; his cold breath, of wind; and his intelligence, of grace.

The Northumbrian glosses on the four Gospels are contained in two MSS., both of remarkable interest and value. The former of these, sometimes known as the Lindisfarne MS., and sometimes as the Durham Book, is now MS. Cotton, Nero D. 4 in the British Museum, and is one of the chief treasures in our national collection. It contains a beautifully executed Latin text of the four Gospels, written in the isle of Lindisfarne, by Eadfrith , probably before 700. The interlinear Northumbrian gloss is two and a half centuries later, and was made by Aldred, a priest, about 950, at a time when the MS. was kept at Chester-le-Street, near Durham, whither it had been removed for greater safety. Somewhat later it was again removed to Durham, where it remained for several centuries.

It must be remembered that a gloss is not quite the same thing as a free translation that observes the rules of grammar. A gloss translates the Latin text word by word, in the order of that text; so that the glossator can neither observe the natural English order nor in all cases preserve the English grammar; a fact which somewhat lessens its value, and must always be allowed for. It is therefore necessary, in all cases, to ascertain the Latin text. I subjoin a specimen, from Matt, v 11-15.

eadge aron ge mith thy yfle hia gecuoethas iuh and mith thy 11. Beati estis cum maledixerunt uobis et cum

oehtas iuih and cuoethas eghwelc yfel with iuih persecuti uos fuerint et dixerint omne malum aduersum uos

ge-oehton tha witgo tha the weron aer iuih gee persecuti sunt prophetas qui fuerunt ante uos. 13. Uos

sint salt eorthes thaet gif salt forworthes in thon gesaelted bith to estis sal terrae quod si sal euanuerit in quo sallietur ad

and getreden bith from monnum et conculcetur ab hominibus

The history of the Northern dialect during the next three centuries, from the year 1000 to nearly 1300, with a few insignificant exceptions, is a total blank.

THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; A.D. 1300-1400

The literal sense is:--"He sent His arrows and scattered them; multiplied lightning and so afflicted them. And the wells of waters were shown, and the foundations of the earthly world are uncovered because of Thy snubbing , O my Lord! because of the blast of the breath of Thy wrath. He sent from on high, and took me up; from many waters He took me. He took me out there-among from my foes that were so strong, and from those that alway hated me; for they were strengthened together over me. They came before me in the day of affliction, and the Lord is made my protection. And He led me to be in a broad place; He made me safe, because He desired me; and the Lord shall requite me according to all my righteousness, and according to the cleanness of my hands shall He repay me in the end."

Qwhen Alysandyre oure kyng wes dede, That Scotland had to stere and lede, The land sex yhere and mayr perfay Wes desolate efftyr his day. The barnage off Scotland, at the last, Assemblyd thame, and fandyt fast To chess a kyng, thare land to stere, That off awncestry cummyn were Off kyngis that aucht that reawt?, And mast had rycht thare kyng to be.

But inwy, that is sa fellowne, Amang thame mad dissensiown: For sum wald have the Ballyolle kyng, For he wes cumyn off that ofspryng That off the eldest systere was; And other sum nyt all that cas, And sayd, that he thare kyng suld be, That wes in als nere degre, And cummyn wes off the nerrast male In thai brawnchys collateralle...

A! blynd folk, fulle off all foly, Had yhe wmbethowcht yowe inkkyrly Quhat peryle to yowe mycht appere, Yhe had noucht wroucht on this man?r. Had yhe tane kepe, how that that kyng Off Walys, forowtyn sudiowrnyng, Trawaylyd to wyn the senyhowry, And throw his mycht till occupy Landys, that ware till hym marchand, As Walys was, and als Irland, That he put till sic threllage, That thai, that ware off hey parage, Suld ryn on fwte, as rybalddale, Quhen ony folk he wald assale. Durst nane of Walis in batale ryd, Na yhit, fra evyn fell, abyde Castell or wallyd towne within, Than he suld lyff and lymmys tyne. Into swylk thryllage thame held he That he owre-come with his powst?.

In addition to the poems, etc., already mentioned, further material may be found in the prose works of Richard Rolle of Hampole, especially his translation and exposition of the Psalter, edited by the Rev. H.R. Bramley , and the Prose Treatises edited by the Rev. G.G. Perry for the Early English Text Society. Dr Murray further calls attention to the Early Scottish Laws, of which the vernacular translations partly belong to the fourteenth century.

To quote from Dr Murray once more :

The retort is obvious enough, that Barbour and Henry the Minstrel and Dunbar and Lyndesay have all recorded that their native language was "Inglis" or "Inglisch"; and it is interesting to note that, having regard to the pronunciation, they seem to have known, better than we do, how that name ought to be spelt.

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