Read Ebook: A Young Folks' History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints by Anderson Nephi

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These methods may also be applied to the examination of raw tomatoes and canned tomatoes. In applying the relations given below to the results obtained by the examination of tomato pulp or canned tomatoes, it is assumed that no substance such as sugar or salt has been added. If salt is found to be present in excess of the amount normal to tomatoes , it is necessary to determine the amount and make correction therefor before applying the relations given below.

This chapter is largely taken from an article by Bigelow and Fitzgerald, published in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. The section on Microscopic Examination is substantially a reprint of an article by Bigelow and Donk published in the trade papers in September, 1918. For further information on the analysis of tomato products the Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists should be consulted.

In examining raw tomatoes, care must be taken to secure a representative sample of the juice. This cannot be done by applying pressure directly, as the juice of the seed receptacles is of different composition from that of the fleshy part of the tomato. It is necessary, therefore, to crush the sample and thoroughly cook it in a flask surrounded by boiling water and connected with a reflux condenser.

Microscopic Examination

The laboratory of the National Canners' Association is frequently asked to examine samples of tomato products to determine whether or not they comply with the Government requirements. In examining these samples we use the Government method , but do not participate in the discussions regarding its merits and shortcomings.

It is our experience that skilled analysts can check themselves and each other with reasonable accuracy, and it is our duty to tell the manufacturer whether his product is legal. Should the Bureau of Chemistry adopt some other method as preferable to the Howard method, it would be our duty to use the new method and continue to serve the industry by telling the manufacturer whether samples submitted by him would pass the Government tests.

With a full understanding of our attitude in this matter many manufacturers of tomato products send samples from time to time for examination. It is made plain in every instance that the results obtained by the examination of a particular sample refer only to the batch from which that sample was taken and may give no indication of the character of any other batch.

Some manufacturers of tomato products use the Howard method as a check on their factory control. For this purpose it is not satisfactory to have samples examined in a laboratory located at a distance from the factory. Even if several samples are examined from a day's run, they probably do not represent all the pulp manufactured on that day. It sometimes happens that one wagonload of tomatoes is almost entirely free of rotting material, whereas the succeeding load contains a considerable amount. Even with inefficient sorting, the pulp made from the first load will show a low microscopic count whereas, unless sorting is exceptionally good, the pulp made from the second load may show a high count. Thus one batch may readily comply with the requirements of the Bureau of Chemistry and the next batch may be outside of those limits. Because of this fact this laboratory recommends that manufacturers of tomato pulp do not rely upon the microscopic results of a single sample. The only way in which the product may be absolutely controlled by means of the microscopic count is to examine a sample from each batch--that is, from each kettleful or tankful that is evaporated. This is manifestly impossible. It would require several analysts for one plant. Moreover, it is entirely unnecessary.

It has been found that much better results can be secured by having an analyst in the plant to examine samples from time to time. Then, whenever the microscopic count becomes excessive, he can locate the trouble and see that it is corrected.

Manufacturers who desire frequent analyses of their products, therefore, should employ an analyst and arrange to have him instructed in a laboratory conversant with the Howard method as used by the Government. The laboratory of the National Canners' Association makes it a practice to give the necessary instruction in this method to analysts employed by members of the association. These analysts should be carefully selected. Other things being equal, better results should be expected of a college graduate or at least one who has had college training in biology and chemistry. It has been repeatedly demonstrated, however, that a carefully selected man or woman with common school education can learn the method and use it with sufficient accuracy for factory control. The person selected for this work should have good powers of observation and a positive character.

This laboratory has heretofore advised that manufacturers of tomato pulp should not give too much attention to the microscopic count of their product. We have maintained that the expense would be better placed on the sorting belt; that if the sorting and trimming were adequately done, the plant maintained in a sanitary condition and the product manufactured as rapidly as possible, a low microscopic count would be assured. This we still maintain is true. So many cases have come to our attention, however, in which canners have not succeeded in maintaining the degree of sorting necessary with a product of this kind that we have grown to feel that the presence of an analyst working continuously in a plant is an additional safeguard.

The conditions attending the canning of tomatoes are widely different from those attending the manufacture of tomato pulp. The ordinary rot is almost always apparent from the outside of the tomatoes and is removed by the peelers when preparing tomatoes for canning. Practically none of it, therefore, finds its way into the can. With pulp it is quite different. Any rot which listen to him and leave the other brothers and those who upheld them in their evil deeds.

In this way there became two peoples in the land. Those who went with Nephi were called Nephites, and those who remained with Laman became Lamanites. The Nephites built houses, planted fields, and lived as civilized people, and the Lord often revealed his will to them through prophets and holy men. The Lamanites became lazy, lived in tents in the forests, and killed wild animals for their food. Their skins also became dark.

The greater part of the Book of Mormon is about these two peoples, their wars with each other, etc. The Nephites ought to have remained a good people, because the Lord blessed them so much: yet they often did wrong. The Lord would prosper them until they became rich; then they would become proud and at last wicked. Then the Lord would allow the Lamanites to come upon them, and there would be bloody wars. So the story goes for hundreds of years.

Both nations became very large and occupied the greater part of North and South America.

At times the Lord would raise up prophets who would preach to the wicked. Usually these teachers were Nephites, but sometimes they were Lamanites. Sometimes great numbers of Lamanites were converted to the Lord, and when they once accepted the truth, they did not fall away so easily as their Nephite brethren. At one time two thousand young men whose parents were converted Lamanites did valiant service for their country and their religion. There isn't room to tell you about the story here; but you may read about it in the Book of Mormon, beginning with the 53rd chapter of Alma.

When Nephi separated from his brethren, he went north and settled in a place they called the Land of Nephi; but after a time the Lamanites again annoyed them so much that the Lord told Mosiah, who was their leader then to take the more faithful part of the people and again go northward. This they did, and found a city called Zarahemla which had been built by a people who had also come from Jerusalem at the time that city was destroyed. The Nephites joined with the people of Zarahemla, and for a long time this city was the capital of the Nephite people.

In time the Lamanites occupied all of South America except a small part in the north, on which the Nephites lived. The Nephites' land also extended far up into North America.

A little over six hundred years after Lehi landed on this continent, Jesus appeared unto some of the righteous. Before this, however, there had been a great storm all over the land, and many of the wicked had been destroyed. Jesus had been crucified at Jerusalem, had risen from the dead, and now he came to the Nephites with his resurrected body. He taught them the same gospel that he had taught in Palestine and chose twelve disciples to preach and build up his church. For nearly two hundred years the people all belonged to the Church of Christ, and peace was over all the land. Then they became wicked again. The Lamanites kept driving the Nephites further north, until they reached what is now the United States. Around a hill in the western part of the State of New York, then called Cumorah, what was left of the Nephites gathered for the last struggle. The Lamanites met them, and there was a great battle in which all but a very few of the Nephites were killed. Thus ended the Nephite nation, not quite four hundred years after Christ, and the Lamanites or Indians have lived here ever since.

During all this time the Lord had some good men keep a record of what happened among the people. In those days they did not write on paper, so these histories were recorded on plates of metal. These plates were handed from one man to another, until about the time of the last great battle, a prophet by the name of Mormon had all the records. He wrote a short account from them called an abridgment. What he took from each man's record he called after the writer's name, as the Book of Alma, Book of Helaman, etc., which we might call names of chapters in Mormon's book. Mormon gave all his writings to his son Moroni, who wrote a little more on the plates. Moroni also made a short account of another people who had lived in America before the Nephites. They were called the Jaredites. Their history is told in the Book of Ether.

After Moroni had seen his people destroyed he hid all the records in the hill Cumorah.

Topics.--1. What history and geography prove regarding the Book of Mormon. 2. The Lamanites. 3. The Nephites. 4. Mormon. 5. Moroni.

Questions and Review.--1. Who was Lehi? 2. Name his sons. 3. Tell about Laman and Lemuel. 4. What kind of boy was Nephi? 5. Why did they leave Jerusalem? 6. Why did Lehi want the records of his forefathers? 7. Who were the Lamanites? 8. Describe them. 9. Tell about the Nephites. 10. In what land did these people live? 11. Why were the Nephites destroyed? 12. What is the Book of Mormon? 13. Who wrote it? 14. Who had charge of the plates? 15. Where were they hidden? 16. Who translated them into the English language?

THE THREE WITNESSES.

All who read this book ought to turn to one of the first pages of the Book of Moromon and read a paragraph signed by three men whose names are Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and Martin Harris. You will notice in that paragraph that these men bear a most solemn witness that the book is true; that an angel of God came to them with the plates and laid them before their eyes; and that they were translated by the gift and power of God.

The three names signed to this testimony are so important that I wish to tell you something about these men. You have learned a little about them already, but here is a good place to tell you something more about their lives.

Martin Harris was a farmer who became acquainted with Joseph about the time he received the plates. You will remember that Martin visited Joseph in Pennsylvania and did some writing for him. Martin Harris was the man who took some of the writings copied from the plates, with their translation, to the city of New York, and showed them to a learned man named Professor Anthon. The professor seemed pleased with what was shown him, and gave Martin a certificate that the writings were true characters. He also offered to assist in translating the plates, but when Martin told him that an angel had given Joseph the plates, and that part of the book was sealed, he took back the certificate and tore it up, saying "I can not read a sealed book."

If you wish to read something in the Bible that will remind you of this incident you may find it in Isaiah, 29th chapter, beginning at the 10th verse.

Oliver Cowdery became acquainted with Joseph's family, while he boarded with them one winter when he was teaching school. Hearing of Joseph in Pennsylvania and the work he was there doing, Oliver prayed to the Lord for light regarding the matter. Receiving a testimony that it was true, Oliver went to visit Joseph, and there, as we have seen, he wrote for him.

David Whitmer was a friend of Oliver's, and the latter told David many things regarding Joseph. While he was in Pennsylvania, Oliver wrote to David telling him to come down and see them. David came, found everything as had been told him, and took the two young men back to his father's home.

While translating the plates, Joseph came to the passage where it says that there should be three witnesses to these things. On learning this Oliver, David, and Martin asked Joseph to enquire of the Lord if they might be these witnesses. Joseph did so, and their request was gquid should be drawn across the moat and under the cover-glass.

Place the slide under the microscope and examine with a magnification of about 90 diameters and with such adjustment that each field of view covers 1.5 sq. mm. This area is of vital importance and may be obtained by adjusting the draw-tube in such a way that the diameter of the field becomes 1.382 mm. as determined by measurement with a stage micrometer. A 16 mm. Zeiss apochromatic objective with a Zeiss X6 compensating ocular or a Spencer 16 mm. apochromatic objective with a Spencer X10 compensating ocular, or their equivalents, shall be used to obtain this magnification. Under these conditions the amount of liquid examined is .15 cmm. per field. Observe each field as to the presence or absence of mold filaments and note the result as positive or negative. Examine at least 50 fields, prepared from two or more mounts. No field should be considered positive unless the aggregate length of the filaments present exceeds approximately one-sixth of the diameter of the field. Calculate the proportion of positive fields from the results of the examination of all the observed fields and report as percentage of fields containing mold filaments.

Comment by authors: Obviously after the proper draw-tube length has been secured that adjustment should be noted and always used in making mold counts.

Yeasts and Spores.--Tentative

Fill a graduated cylinder with water to the 20 cc. mark, and then add the sample till the level of the mixture reaches the 30 cc. mark. Close the graduate, or pour the contents into an Erlenmeyer flask, and shake the mixture vigorously for 15 to 20 seconds. To facilitate thorough mixing the mixture should not fill more than three-fourths of the container in which the shaking is performed. For tomato sauce or pastes, or products running very high in the number of organisms, or of heavy consistency, 80 cc. of water should be used with 10 cc. or 10 grams of the sample. In the case of exceptionally thick or dry pastes, it may be necessary to make an even greater dilution.

Pour the mixture into a beaker. Thoroughly clean the Thoma-Zeiss counting cell so as to give good Newton's rings. Stir thoroughly the contents of the beaker with a scalpel or knife blade, and then, after allowing to stand 3 to 5 seconds, remove a small drop and place upon the central disk of the Thoma-Zeiss counting cell and cover immediately with the cover-glass, observing the same precautions in mounting the sample as given under 28. Allow the slide to stand not less than 10 minutes before beginning to make the count. Make the count with a magnification of about 180 diameters to obtain which the following combination, or their equivalents, should be employed: 8 mm. Zeiss apochromatic objective with X6 Zeiss compensating ocular, or an 8 mm. Spencer apochromatic objective with X10 Spencer compensating ocular with draw-tube not extended.

Count the number of yeasts and spores on one-half of the ruled squares on the disk . The total number thus obtained equals the number of organisms in 1/60,000 cc. if a dilution of 1 part of the sample with 2 parts of water is used. If a dilution of 1 part of the sample with 8 parts of water is used the number must be multiplied by 3. In making the counts, the analyst should avoid counting an organism twice when it rests on a boundary line between two adjacent squares.

This number refers to the section as given in the Methods of Analysis of the Association of Agricultural Chemists.

Comment by authors: The organisms counted as "yeasts and spores" are the yeast cell and yeast and mold spores, not bacteria spores.

Bacteria.--Tentative

Estimate the number of rod-shaped bacteria from the mounted sample used in 29 , but before examination allow the sample to stand not less than 15 minutes after mounting. Employ a magnification of about 500, which may be obtained by the use of an 8 mm. Zeiss apochromatic objective with X18 Zeiss compensating ocular with draw-tube not extended, or an 8 mm. Spencer apochromatic objective with X20 Spencer compensating ocular and a tube length of 190, or their equivalents.

Count and record the number of bacteria having a length greater than one and one-half times their width in an area consisting of five of the small size squares. Count five such areas, preferably one from near each corner of the ruled portion of the slide and one from near the center. Determine the total number of the rod-shaped bacteria per area in the five areas and multiply by 480,000. This gives the number of this type of bacteria per cc. If a dilution of 1 part of the sample with 8 parts of water instead of 1 part of the sample with 2 parts of water is used in making up the sample, then the total count obtained as above must be multiplied by 1,440,000. Omit the micrococcus type of bacteria in making the count. Thus far it has proved impracticable to count the micrococci present, as they are likely to be confused with other bodies frequently present in such products.

This number refers to the section as given in the Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.

The 4 mm. achromatic objective and the 10X ocular as given in the list of apparatus may also be used to secure this magnification.

Determination of Total Solids

If a sample of pulp of considerable size be thrown on a folded filter, a filtrate is obtained whose composition has a definite relation to that of the whole pulp.

Note.--All specific gravities in this bulletin are on a 20?C/20?C basis.

In the formula given above, as well as in Table 5, it is assumed that salt is absent. If it be desired to calculate the percentage of solids in a sample containing salt from the index of refraction of the filtrate, it is necessary first to determine the amount of salt present and make correction therefor . For this purpose the table of Wagner may be employed. The correction of the immersion refractometer reading amounts to 0.45 for each tenth per cent of salt present.

This correction is necessary if the percentage of solids be determined by drying, or calculated from specific gravity.

Determination of Insoluble Solids

Transfer 20 grams of the pulp to an eight-ounce nursing bottle, nearly filled with hot water, mix by shaking, and centrifuge until the insoluble matter is collected in a cake in the bottom of the bottle. Transfer the supernatant liquor onto a double, tared filter paper covering the bottom of a B?chner funnel, using suction to facilitate filtration.

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