Read Ebook: Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. 1 of 7 by Thurston Edgar Rangachari K Contributor

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Tulu.--The language largely spoken in South Canara . It is described by Bishop Caldwell as one of the most highly developed languages of the Dravidian family.

Koraga.--Spoken by the Koragas of South Canara. It is thought by Mr. H. A. Stuart to be a dialect of Tulu.

Bellera.--Spoken by the Belleras of South Canara, and regarded as a dialect of Canarese or Tulu.

Toda.--The language of the Todas of the Nilgiri hills, concerning which Dr. W. H. R. Rivers writes as follows. "Bernhard Schmid, who wrote in 1837, appears to have known more of the true Toda language than any one who has written since, and he ascribes two-thirds of the Toda vocabulary to Tamil, and was unable to trace the remaining third to any other language. Caldwell believed the language of the Todas to be most closely allied to Tamil. According to Pope, the language was originally old Canarese with the addition of a few Tamil forms, but he has included in his vocabulary words which have probably been borrowed from the Badagas."

Kota.--A mixture of Canarese and Tamil spoken by the Kotas of the Nilgiri hills.

Badaga.--The language of the Badagas of the Nilgiri hills. Said to be an ancient form of Canarese.

Irula.--Spoken by the Irulas of the Nilgiris, and said to be a dialect of Tamil. According to Mr. Stuart, Kasuba or Kasuva is another dialect of Tamil spoken by the sub-division of the Irulas which bears the same name.

Kurumba.--Spoken by the Kurumbas of the Nilgiri hills, Malabar, and Mysore, and regarded as a dialect of Canarese.

Konkani.--A dialect of Marathi, spoken almost entirely in the South Canara district by Sarasvat and Konkani Brahmans and Roman Catholic Christians.

Marathi.--In the Tanjore district, the descendants of the former Maratha Rajas of Tanjore speak this language. It is also spoken in the Bellary district, which was formerly under Maratha dominion, by various Maratha castes, and in the feudatory State of Sandur.

Patnuli or Khatri.--A dialect of Gujarati, spoken by the Patnulkarans who have settled for the most part in the town of Madura. They are immigrants from Saurashtra in Gujarat, who are said to have come south at the invitation of the Nayak kings of Madura.

Lambadi.--The language of the nomad Lambadis, Brinjaris, or Sugalis. It is described by Mr. W. Francis as a patois "usually based on one of the local vernaculars, and embroidered and diversified with thieves' slang and expressions borrowed from the various localities in which the tribe has sojourned. Cust thought that Lambadi was Semi-Dravidian, but the point is not clear, and it has been classed as Indo-Aryan."

Korava or Yerukala.--A dialect of Tamil spoken by the nomad caste bearing these names. Like the Lambadis, they have a thieves' slang.

Vadari.--Recorded as a vulgar Telugu dialect spoken by a wandering tribe of quarrymen in the Bombay Presidency, the Berars, and elsewhere. They are doubtless Oddes or Wudder navvies, who have migrated from their home in the Telugu country.

TABLE A.

TABLE B.

CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Abhisheka.--Abhisheka Pandarams are those who are made to pass through some ceremonies in connection with Saiva Agama.

Acchu Tali.--A sub-division of Vaniyan. The name refers to the peculiar tali worn by married women.

Acchuvaru.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "Oriya-speaking carriers of grain, etc., on pack bullocks. Treated as a sub-division of Gaudo." The Acchuvarus are not Oriya people, but are attached to the Devanga weavers, and receive their name from the fact that they do acchupani, i.e., thread the long comb-like structures of the hand-loom. They correspond to the Jatipillais of the Kaikolan weavers, who do acchuvelai.

Acchu Vellala.--A name assumed by some Pattanavans.

Achan.--Achan, meaning father or lord, was returned, at the Cochin census, 1901, as a title of Nayars. According to Mr. Wigram it is used as a title of the following:--

Acharapakam Chetti.--One of the sub-divisions of the Chettis, generally grouped among the Beri Chettis .

Achari.--See Asari.

Adapadava .--A name, referring to the dressing-bag which barbers carry, applied to Lingayat barbers in South Canara.

Adapapa.--Returned in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste of Balija. The name is applied to female attendants on the ladies of the families of Zamindars, who, as they are not allowed to marry, lead a life of prostitution. Their sons call themselves Balijas .

Adavi .--The name of a sub-division of Yanadis, and also of a section of Gollas in Mysore.

Adaviyar.--Adaviyar or Ataviyar is the name of a class of Tamil-speaking weavers found in the Tanjore and Tinnevelly districts.

Addaku .--A sept of Jatapu. The leaves of this tree are largely used as food platters, in Madras, and generally on the east coast.

Addapu Singa.--Mendicants who beg only from Mangalas in the Telugu country.

Adhigari.--Defined by Mr. Wigram as the head of the amsam or parish in Malabar, corresponding to the Manigar in east coast districts and Patel in South Canara. The title Adhigari is assumed by some Agamudaiyans, and Adhikari occurs as an exogamous sept of the Badagas, and the title of village headman among some Oriya castes. In South Canara, it is a sept of Stanika.

Adi .--The name of a division of Linga Balijas, and of Velamas who have abandoned the practice of keeping their females gosha . It is also applied by the Chenchus to the original members of their tribe, from whom the man-lion Narasimha obtained his bride Chenchita.

Adichchan.--A sub-division of Nayar.

Adikal .--Included among the Ambalavasis. It is recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, that "tradition states that Sankaracharya, to test the fidelity of certain Brahmins to the established ordinances of caste, went to a liquor-shop, and drank some stimulants. Not recognising that the obligations, from which adepts like Sankara were free, were none the less binding on the proletariat, the Brahmins that accompanied the sage made this an excuse for their drinking too. Sankara is said to have then entered a foundry, and swallowed a cup of molten metal, and handed another to the Brahmins, who had apparently made up their minds to do all that may be done by the Acharya. But they begged to differ, apologised to him as Atiyals or humble servants, and accepted social degradation in expiation of their sinful presumption. They are now the priests in temples dedicated to Bhadrakali, and other goddesses who receive offerings of liquor. They practise sorcery, and aid in the exorcising of spirits. They have the upanayana-samskara, and wear the sacred thread. The simantam ceremony is not performed. They are to repeat the Gayatri ten times, and observe eleven days' death pollution. Their own caste-men act as priests. The Atiyammamar wear the same jewellery as the Nambutiri women, but they do not screen themselves by a cadjan umbrella when they go out in public, nor are they accompanied by a Nayar maid."

Adimittam.--An occupational sub-division of Marans, who clean the court-yards of temples in Travancore.

Adisaivar.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a sub-caste of Vellala. They are singers of Devara hymns in Saiva temples." The name indicates those who have been Saivites from the beginning, as opposed to recent Saivites. Adisaivas are Saivites, who have survived the absorbing influence of the Lingayat sect. Saivites who profess the Lingayat doctrines are known as Virasaivas. Some Pandarams, who belong to the Sozhia sub-division of the Vellalas, regularly recite Tamil verses from Thevaram and Tiruvachagam in Saivite temples. This being their profession, they are also called Oduvar .

Aditya Varada.--Kurubas, who worship their God on Sunday.

Adiyan.--Adiyan has been defined as meaning literally "a slave, but usually applied to the vassals of Tamburans and other powerful patrons. Each Adiyan had to acknowledge his vassalage by paying annually a nuzur to his patron, and was supposed also to be ready to render service whenever needed. This yearly nuzur, which did not generally exceed one or two fanams, was called adima-panam" , adima meaning feudal dependency on a patron.

Adiyodi.--Adiyodi or Atiyoti, meaning slave or vassal, has been returned at times of census as a sub-division of Samantan. It is, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, "the caste of the Kadattanad Rajah in North Malabar. The tradition is that, when he was driven out of his territories in and around Calicut by the Zamorin, he took shelter under the Rajah of Chirakkal, who gave him the Kadattanad country to hold as his vassal. Some Atiyotis advance no pretension to be above Nayars in rank."

Adutton .--A synonym for Kavutiyan, a caste of Malayalam barbers. In like manner, the name Ambattan for Tamil barbers is said to be derived from the Sanskrit amba , s'tha , indicating that they stand near to shave their clients or treat their patients.

Agamudaiyan.--The Agamudaiyans, Mr. W. Francis writes, are "a cultivating caste found in all the Tamil districts. In Chingleput, North Arcot, Salem, Coimbatore and Trichinopoly, they are much less numerous than they were thirty years ago. The reason probably is that they have risen in the social scale, and have returned themselves as Vellalas. Within the same period, their strength has nearly doubled in Tanjore, perhaps owing to the assumption of the name by other castes like the Maravans and Kallans. In their manners and customs they closely follow the Vellalas. Many of these in the Madura district are the domestic servants of the Marava Zamindars." The Agamudaiyans who have settled in the North Arcot district are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart as "a class of cultivators differing widely from the Agamudaiyans of the Madura district. The former are closely allied to the Vellalas, while the latter are usually regarded as a more civilised section of the southern Maravans. It may be possible that the Agamudaiyans of North Arcot are the descendants of the first immigrants from the Madura district, who, after long settlement in the north, severed all connexions with their southern brethren." In some districts, Agamudaiyan occurs as a synonym of Vellalas, Pallis and Melakkarans, who consider that Agamudaiyan is a better caste name than their own.

The Agamudaiyans proper are found in the Tanjore, Madura, and Tinnevelly districts.

It is noted in the Tanjore Manual that Ahamudaiyar is "derived from the root aham, which, in Tamil, has many significations. In one of these, it means a house, in another earth, and hence it has two meanings, householder and landholder; the suffix Udeiyar indicating ownership. The word is also used in another form, ahambadiyan, derived from another meaning of the same root, i.e., inside. And, in this derivation, it signifies a particular caste, whose office it was to attend to the business in the interior of the king's palace, or in the pagoda." "The name," Mr. J. H. Nelson writes, "is said by the Rev. G. U. Pope, in his edition of the Abb? Dubois' work, to be derived from aham, a temple, and padi, a step, and to have been given to them in consequence of their serving about the steps of temples. But, independently of the fact that Madura pagodas are not approached by flights of steps, this seems to be a very far-fetched and improbable derivation of the word. I am inclined to doubt whether it be not merely a vulgar corruption of the well-known word Ahamudeiyan, possessor of a house, the title which Tamil Brahmans often use in speaking of a man to his wife, in order to avoid the unpolite term husband. Or, perhaps, the name comes from aham in the sense of earth, and pati, master or possessor."

Of the three castes, Kallan, Maravan and Agamudaiyan, the last are said to have "alone been greatly influenced by contact with Brahmanism. They engage Brahman priests, and perform their birth, marriage, and death ceremonies like the Vellalas." I am told that the more prosperous Agamudaiyans in the south imitate the Vellalas in their ceremonial observances, and the poorer classes the Maravans.

Agamudaiyan has been returned, at times of census, as a sub-division of Maravan and Kallan. In some places, the Agamudaiyans style themselves sons of Sembunattu Maravans. At Ramnad, in the Madura district, they carry the fire-pot to the burning ground at the funeral of a Maravan, and also bring the water for washing the corpse. In the Tanjore district the Agamudaiyans are called Terkittiyar, or southerners, a name which is also applied to Kallans, Maravans, and Valaiyans. The ordinary title of the Agamudaiyans is Servaikkaran, but many of them call themselves, like the Vellalas, Pillai. Other titles, returned at times of census, are Adhigari and Mudaliar.

At the census, 1891, the following were returned as the more important sub-divisions of the Agamudaiyans:--Aivali Nattan, Kottaipattu, Malainadu, Nattumangalam, Rajaboja, Rajakulam, Rajavasal, Kallan, Maravan, Tuluvan and Servaikkaran. The name Rajavasal denotes those who are servants of Rajas, and has been transformed into Rajavamsa, meaning those of kingly parentage. Kottaipattu means those of the fort, and the Agamudaiyans believe that the so-called Kottai Vellalas of the Tinnevelly district are really Kottaipattu Agamudaiyans. One sub-division of the Agamudaiyans is called Sani . Unlike the Maravans and Kallans, the Agamudaiyans have no exogamous septs, or kilais.

It is recorded, in the Mackenzie Manuscripts, that "among the Maravas, the kings or the rulers of districts, or principal men, are accustomed to perform the ceremony of tying on the tali, or in performing the marriage at once in full, with reference to females of the Agambadiyar tribe. The female children of such marriages can intermarry with the Maravas, but not among the Agambadiyar tribe. On the other hand, the male offspring of such marriages is considered to be of the mother's tribe, and can intermarry with the Agambadiyas, but not in the tribe of the Maravas." I am told that, under ordinary circumstances, the offspring of a marriage between a Maravan and Agamudaiyan becomes an Agamudaiyan, but that, if the husband is a man of position, the male issues are regarded as Maravans. Adult marriage appears to be the rule among the Agamudaiyans, but sometimes, as among the Maravans, Kallans and other castes, young boys are, in the southern districts, sometimes married to grown-up girls.

The marriage ceremonial, as carried out among the poorer Agamudaiyans, is very simple. The sister of the bridegroom proceeds to the home of the bride on an auspicious day, followed by a few females carrying a woman's cloth, a few jewels, flowers, etc. The bride is seated close to a wall, facing east. She is dressed up in the cloth which has been brought, and seated on a plank. Betel leaves, areca nuts, and flowers are presented to her by the bridegroom's sister, and she puts them in her lap. A turmeric-dyed string or garland is then placed round the bride's neck by the bridegroom's sister, while the conch shell , is blown. On the same day the bride is conducted to the home of the bridegroom, and a feast is held.

The more prosperous Agamudaiyans celebrate their marriages according to the Puranic type, which is the form in vogue amongst most of the Tamil castes, with variations. The astrologer is consulted in order to ascertain whether the pair agree in some at least of the points enumerated below. For this purpose, the day of birth, zodiacal signs, planets and asterisms under which the pair were born, are taken into consideration:--

Aswini, Strychnos Nux-vomica. Bharani, Phyllanthus Emblica. Krithikai, Ficus glomerata. Puram, Butea frondosa. Hastham, Sesbania grandiflora. Thiruvonam, Calotropis gigantea. Uththirattadhi, Melia Azadirachta.

Some of the trees are classed as milky, and others as dry. The young man's tree should be dry, and that of the girl milky, or both milky.

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