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CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA

Superintendent, Madras Government Museum; Correspondant ?tranger, Soci?t? d'Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante, Societa, Romana di Anthropologia.

Assisted by

K. Rangachari, M.A., of the Madras Government Museum.

Government Press, Madras

CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Tabelu .--A sept of Aiyarakulu, and section of Gazula Kapu and Koppala Velama.

Taccha Kurup.--Barbers who shave Malabar Kammalans.

Tacchan.--The name of the carpenter sub-division of Kammalans, and further returned, at the census, 1891, as an occupational sub-division by some Paraiyans. Taccha Karaiyan has been recorded as a name for some members of the Karaiyan fishing caste. The Tacchasastram, or science of carpentry, prescribes in minute details the rules of construction.

Tacchanadan Muppan.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Reports, 1891 and 1901, as a sub-division of Kuricchans, and of Kurumbas of the Nilgiris.

Tadan.--See Dasari.

Tagara.--A section of Poroja.

Takru.--A class of Muhammadan pilots and sailors in the Laccadive islands.

Talaivan .--A title of the Maravans. Jadi or Jati Talaivan is the name of the hereditary chief of the Paravas of Tinnevelly, who, at times of pearl fisheries, receives a fixed share of the 'oysters.'

Talamala.--A sub-division of Kanikar.

Talayari.--The Talayari or chief watchman, or Uddari , is a kind of undepartmental village policeman, who is generally known as the Talari. Among other duties, he has to follow on the track of stolen cattle, to act as a guard over persons confined in the village choultry , to attend upon the head of the village during the trial of petty cases, to serve processes, and distrain goods. In big villages there are two or three Talayaris, in which case one is a Paraiyan, who officiates in the Paraiya quarter. In parts of the Telugu country, the Mutrachas, who are the village watchmen, are known as Talarivallu, or watchman people, and, in like manner, the Bedars are called Talarivandlu in the Kurnool and Bellary districts.

It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district , that "from the earliest years of the British occupation of the country, fees were paid to the talaiyari or village watchman. He was probably survival of a state of society in which kavalgars did not exist, and his duties were, it seems, to look after the villagers' fields and threshing floors. At any rate, he continued in existence even after the abolition of the kaval system , and was declared by the early Police Regulation to be part of the regular police establishment. Practically he did little real police duty, and in 1860, when the mufassal police was reorganised, all claims to the services of the talaiyari as a servant of the State were formally abandoned, the Inspector-General of Police having reported that any attempt to utilise the talaiyari body would be fruitless and unpopular. Talaiyaris still continue to be employed and paid by the ryots as the private guardians of their crops and harvested grain. Recently, however, the district was brought into line with the rest of the Presidency by the creation of a new force of talaiyaris, who now perform the police duties assigned to such persons elsewhere. They are provided with lathis and badges, and are a useful auxiliary to the police."

Tali.--"The tali," Bishop Caldwell writes, "is the Hindu sign of marriage, answering to the ring of European christendom. I have known a clergyman refuse to perform a marriage with a tali, and insist upon a ring being used instead. A little consideration will show that the scrupulous conscience can find no rest for itself even in the ring; for, if the ring is more Christian than the tali, it is only because its use among Christians is more ancient. Every one knows that the ring has a Pagan origin, and that, for this reason, it is rejected by Quakers." "The custom," Wagner informs us, "of wearing the wedding ring on the fourth finger of the left hand had unquestionably a Pagan origin. Both the Greeks and the Romans called the fourth left-hand finger the medicated finger, and used it to stir up mixtures and potions, out of the belief that it contained a vein, which communicated directly with the heart, and therefore nothing noxious could come in contact with it, without giving instant warning to that vital organ."

The marriage badge, as it occurs in Southern India, is, broadly speaking, of two types. The one in use among the Tamil castes is oblong in shape, with a single or double indentation at the base, and rounded at the top. The corresponding bottu or sathamanam of the Telugu and Canarese castes is a flat or cup-shaped disc. The tali in use among various Malayalam castes at the tali-kettu ceremony is a long cylinder.

Tali-kettu kalyanam .--A ceremony gone through by Nayar girls, and girls of some other Malayalam castes, in childhood. Of those who gave evidence before the Malabar Marriage Commission, some thought the tali-kettu was a marriage, some not. Others called it a mock marriage, a formal marriage, a sham marriage, fictitious marriage, a marriage sacrament, the preliminary part of marriage, a meaningless ceremony, an empty form, a ridiculous farce, an incongruous custom, a waste of money, and a device for becoming involved in debt. "While," the Report states, "a small minority of strict conservatives still maintain that the tali-kettu is a real marriage intended to confer on the bridegroom a right to cohabit with the bride, an immense majority describe it as a fictitious marriage, the origin of which they are at a loss to explain. And another large section tender the explanation accepted by our President , that in some way or other it is an essential caste observance preliminary to the formation of sexual relations." In summing up the evidence collected by him, Mr. Lewis Moore states that it seems to be proved beyond all reasonable doubt that "from the sixteenth century at all events, and up to the early portion of the nineteenth century, the relations between the sexes in families governed by marumakkathayam were of as loose a description as it is possible to imagine. The tali-kettu kalyanam, brought about by the Brahmans, brought about no improvement, and indeed, in all probability, made matters much worse by giving a quasi-religious sanction to a fictitious marriage, which bears an unpleasant resemblance to the sham marriage ceremonies performed among certain inferior castes elsewhere as a cloak for prostitution . As years passed, some time about the opening of the nineteenth century, the Kerala mahatmyam and Keralolpathi were concocted, probably by Nambudris, and false and pernicious doctrines as to the obligations laid on the Nayars by divine law to administer to the lust of the Nambudris were disseminated abroad. The better classes among the Nayars revolted against the degrading system thus established, and a custom sprang up, especially in North Malabar, of making sambandham a more or less formal contract, approved and sanctioned by the Karnavan of the tarwad to which the lady belonged, and celebrated with elaborate ceremony under the pudamuri form. That there was nothing analogous to the pudamuri prevalent in Malabar from A.D. 1500 to 1800 may, I think, be fairly presumed from the absence of all allusion to it in the works of the various European writers." According to Act IV, Madras, 1896, sambandham means an alliance between a man and woman, by reason of which they, in accordance with the custom of the community to which they belong, or either of them belongs, cohabit or intend to cohabit as husband and wife.

Tambala.--The Tambalas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "Telugu-speaking temple priests. Their social position differs in different localities. They are regarded as Brahmans in Godavari, Kistna and Nellore, and as Sudras in the other Telugu districts." It is noted, in the Census Report, that the Tambalas are described by C. P. Brown as a class of beggars, who worship Siva, and who beat drums; secular priests, etc. These men are generally Sudras, but wear the sacred thread. "It is said that, during his peregrinations in the north, Sankaracharya appointed Tamil Brahmans to perform temple services in all the Saiva shrines. Hence the Telugu people, in the midst of whom the Tamilians lived, called them the Tambalas . They are not now, however, regarded as Brahmans, whatever their original position may have been. They will eat only with Brahmans. Most of them are Saivites, and a few are Lingayats. The Smarta Brahmans officiate as their priests at birth, marriage, and death ceremonies. They do not eat animal food, and all their religious rites are more or less like those of Brahmans. Their usual titles are Aiya and Appa."

Tamban.--One of the divisions of Kshatriyas in Travancore.

Tambi .--A term of affection in the Tamil country, used especially when a younger person is being addressed. It is also recorded as an honorific title of Nayars in Travancore, and a suffix to the names of Nayar sons of Travancore sovereigns.

Tambiran.--The name for Pandaram managers of temples, e.g., at Tiruvadudurai in Tanjore and Mailam in South Arcot.

Tamburan.--For the following note on the Rajahs or Tamburans, I am indebted to the Travancore Census Report, 1901. "They form an endogamous community of Kshatriyas, and live as seven families in Travancore. They are distinguished by the localities in which they reside, viz., Mavelikkara, Ennaikkat, Kartikapalli, Mariappalli, Tiruvalla, Praikkara, and Aranmula. They are all related by blood, the connection between some of them being very close. Like the Koiltampurans, all the members of their community observe birth and death pollution with reference to each other. Their original home is Kolattunat in North Malabar, and their immigration into Travancore, where the reigning family is of the Kolattunat stock, was contemporaneous, in the main, with the invasion of Malabar by Tippu Sultan. The first family that came into the country from Kolattunat was the Putuppalli Kovilakam in the 5th century M.E. . The Travancore royal family then stood in need of adoption. The then Rajah arranged through a Koiltampuran of Tattarikkovilakam to bring from Kolattunat two princesses for adoption, as his negotiations with the then Kolattiri were fruitless. The Puttuppali Kovilakam members thus settled themselves at Kartikapalli, the last of whom died in 1030 M.E. The next family that migrated was Cheriyakovilakam, between 920 and 930 M.E. They also came for adoption. But their right was disputed by another house, Pallikkovilakam. They then settled themselves at Aranmula. The third series of migrations were during the invasion of Malabar by Tippu in 964 M.E. All the Rajahs living there at the time came over to Travancore, of whom, however, many returned home after a time.

The Rajahs, like the Koiltampurans, belong to the Yajurveda section of Dvijas, but follow the sutra laid down by Baudhayana. Their gotra is that of Bhargava, i.e., Parasurama, indicating in a manner that these are Kshatriyas who were accepted by Parasurama, the uncompromising Brahmin of the Hindu Puranas. They have all the Brahminical Samskaras, only the Brahmin priest does most of them on their behalf. Chaulam, or tuft ceremony, is performed along with Upanayanam. The Samavartanam, or termination of the pupil stage, is celebrated on the fourth day of the thread investiture. Instruction in arms is then given to the Kshatriya boy, and is supposed to be kept up until the requisite skill has been obtained. The tali-tying is done by a Koiltampuran, who thereafter lives with her as her married husband. The Kanyakadanam, or giving away of the bride, is performed by the priest who attends also to the other Sastraic rites. The males take Sudra consorts. If the first husband leaves by death or otherwise, another Koiltampuran may be accepted. This is not called marriage, but kuttirikkuka .

At Sradhas , the Karta, or performer of the ceremony, throws a flower as a mark of spiritual homage at the feet of the Brahmins who are invited to represent the manes, and greets them in the conventional form . The priest does the other ceremonies. After the invited Brahmins have been duly entertained, oblations of cooked rice are offered to the ancestors by the Karta himself.

They are to repeat the Gayatri ten times at each Sandhya prayer, together with the Panchakshara and the Ashtakshara mantras.

Their caste government is in the hands of the Nambutiri Vaidikas. Their family priests belong to the class of Malayala Pottis, known as Tiruveli Pottis.

Besides the ordinary names prevalent among Koiltampurans, names such as Martanda Varma, Aditya Varma, and Udaya Varma are also met with. Pet names, such as Kungaru, Kungappan, Kungoman, Kungunni, Unni and Ampu are common. In the Travancore Royal House, the first female member always takes the name of Lakshmi and the second that of Parvati.

Tamoli.--A few members of this North India caste of betel-leaf sellers have been returned at times of census. I am unable to discover in what district they occur. Tambuli or Tamuli is recorded as a caste of betel-leaf sellers in Bengal, and Tamboli as a caste carrying on a similar occupation in the Bombay Presidency.

Tanamanadu.--A sub-division of Valaiyan.

Tanda.--The word literally refers to a settlement or encampment of the Lambadis, by some of whom it is, at times of census, returned as a tribal synonym.

Tandan.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "in Walluvanad and Palghat Tandan is a distinct caste. The ceremonies observed by Tandans are, in general outline, the same as those of the southern Tiyyans, but the two do not intermarry, each claiming superiority over the other. There is a custom which prohibits the Tandan females of Walluvanad from crossing a channel which separates that taluk from Mankara on the Palghat side." The Tandans of Malabar are described by Mr. F. Fawcett as a people allied to the Izhuvans, who observe the custom of fraternal polyandry, which the Izhuvans abhor.

For the following note on the Tandans of Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar.

The castemen are known as Uralis to the south of Varkallay, and Tandans to the north of it. In some places to the east of Kottarakaray, they were popularly termed Mutalpattukar, or those who receive the first perquisite for assistance rendered to carpenters. In the days when there were no saws, the rough instruments of the Tandan served their purpose. Hence some members of the caste were called Tacchan . Tandan is derived from the Sanskrit dandanam or punishment, as, in ancient times, men of this caste were employed to carry out the punishments that were inflicted by the authorities upon offenders. For the execution of such punishments, the Tandans were provided with swords, choppers and knives. As they were also told off to guard the villages of which they happened to be inhabitants, they acquired the title of Urali. In some places, Tandans are also called Velans. Males and females have respectively the title Muppan and Muppatti, meaning an elder. In addressing members of higher castes, the Tandans call themselves Kuzhiyan, or dwellers in pits.

The Tandans are said to have once belonged to the same caste as the Izhuvans, but to have fallen away from that position. They must, in times gone by, have joined the military service of the various States in Malabar. They were, in some places, given rent-free lands, called Urali parambu, in return for the duties they were expected to perform. With the return of peaceful times, their occupation changed, and the climbing of palm trees, to extract the juice thereof, became their most important calling. They are also largely engaged in the manufacture of ropes. Many families still receive the mutalpattu, or allowance from the carpenters.

The Tandans are divided into four endogamous sections, called Ilanji, Puvar, Irunelli, and Pilakkuti.

The ornaments of the women are, besides the minnu, wreaths of red and red and black beads. Nowadays the gold gnattu of the Nayars is also worn. Tattooing is popular. Even males have a crescent and a dot tattooed on the forehead, the corresponding mark in females being a line from the nasal pit upwards. Among the devices tattooed on the arms are the conch shell, lotus, snake, discus, etc. In their food and drink the Tandans resemble the Iluvans.

The priests of the Tandans are called Tanda Kuruppus, and they are also the caste barbers. The chief deity of the Tandans is Bhadrakali, at whose shrines at Mandaikkad, Cranganore, and Sarkkaray, offerings are regularly made. At the last place, a Tandan is the priest. The chief days for the worship of this deity are Bharani asterism in March and Pattamudayam in April. November is a particularly religious month, and the day on which the Kartikay star falls is exclusively devoted to worship. The first Sunday in January is another religious occasion, and on that day cooked food is offered to the rising sun. This is called Pogala. Maruta, or the spirit of smallpox, receives special worship. If a member of the caste dies of this disease, a small shed is erected in his memory either at his home or near the local Bhadrakali shrine, and offerings of sweetmeats and toddy are made to him on the 28th of Makaram . Chitragupta, the accountant of Yama, the god of death, is worshipped on the full-moon day in April-May. Ancestor worship is performed on the new-moon day in July.

A girl's tali-tying ceremony, which is called kazhuttukettu, takes place when she is between seven and twelve years old. The bridegroom is a relative called Machchampi. The Kuruppu receives a money present of 2 1/2 fanams for every tali tied in his presence. Though more than one girl may go through the ceremony in the same pandal , each should have a separate bridegroom. The relations between the bride and bridegroom are dissolved by the father of the former paying the latter sixteen rasi fanams. The daughter of a man's paternal aunt or maternal uncle may be claimed as murappen or lawful bride. The sambandham, or actual marriage, takes place after a girl has reached puberty. A family is regarded as out-caste, if she has not previously gone through the tali-tying ceremony.

Only the eldest member of a family is cremated, the rest being buried. Death pollution lasts for ten days. The anniversary of a death is celebrated at the sea-shore, where cooked food, mixed with gingelly is offered to the departed, and thrown into the sea.

Tandan.--The Tandan is the hereditary headman of a Tiyan tara , and is a Tiyan by caste. He is appointed by the senior Rani of the Zamorin's family, or by some local Raja in territories outside the jurisdiction of the Zamorin. The Tandan is the principal person in the decision of caste disputes. He is expected to assist at the tali-tying, puberty, marriage and pregnancy ceremonies of members of the caste. His formal permission is required before the carpenter can cut down the areca palm, with which the shed in which the tali is tied is constructed. In cases of divorce, his functions are important. When a new house is built, a house-warming ceremony takes place, at which the Tandan officiates. Fowls are sacrificed, and the right leg is the Tandan's perquisite. He is a man of importance, not only in many affairs within his own caste, but also in those of other castes. Thus, when a Nayar dies, it is the Tandan's duty to get the body burnt. He controls the washerman and barber of the tara, and can withdraw their services when they are most needed. He officiates, moreover, at marriages of the artisan classes.

Tangalan.--A sub-division of Paraiyan. The word indicates one who may not stand near, in reference to their belonging to the polluting classes.

Tangedu.--Tangedu or Tangedla has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Kapu and Padma Sale. The bark of this shrub is one of the most valuable Indian tanning agents, and is, like myrabolams , used in the manufacture of indigenous dyes.

Tantuvayan .--An occupational name used by various weaving castes.

Tapodhanlu.--The name, meaning those who believe in self-mortification as wealth, adopted by some Telugu mendicants.

Tarakan.--See Muttan.

Tartharol.--The name, recorded by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, of a division of the Todas. Tartal is also given by various writers as a division of this tribe.

Tarwad.--Defined by Mr. Wigram as a marumakkathayam family, consisting of all the descendants in the female line of one common female ancestor.

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