Read Ebook: Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. 7 of 7 by Thurston Edgar Rangachari K Contributor

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Tarwad.--Defined by Mr. Wigram as a marumakkathayam family, consisting of all the descendants in the female line of one common female ancestor.

Tassan.--A Malayalam synonym for the Telugu Dasari.

Tattan.--The goldsmith section of the Tamil and Malayalam Kammalans.

Teivaliol.--The name, recorded by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, of a division of the Todas.

Telaga.--"The Telagas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, "are a Telugu caste of cultivators, who were formerly soldiers in the armies of the Hindu sovereigns of Telingana. This may perhaps account for the name, for it is easy to see that the Telugu soldiers might come to be regarded as the Telugus or Telagas par excellence. The sub-divisions returned under this name show that there has been some confusion between the Telagas proper, and persons who are members of other Telugu castes. The Telagas are Vaishnavites, and have Brahmans for their priests. Their customs closely resemble those of the Kapus. They eat flesh, but are not allowed to drink liquor. They are usually farmers now, but many still serve as soldiers, though their further recruitment has recently been stopped. Their common titles are Naidu and Dora."

In a note on the Telagas and Vantaris , it is suggested that they should be classed with the Kapus, of which caste they are an offshoot for the following reasons:--" Members of the three classes admit that this is so; a collation of the intiperulu or septs shows that the same names recur among the three classes; all three interdine, and intermarriage between them is not rare. A poor Telaga or Vantari often gives his daughter in marriage to a rich Kapu. The Telagas and Vantaris are highly Brahmanised, and will have a Brahman for their guru, and get themselves branded at his hands. A Kapu is generally content with a Satani or Jangam. Though they do not differ in their marriage and funeral rites from the Kapus, they usually marry their girls before puberty, and widow remarriage and divorce are disallowed. A Kapu is invariably a cultivator; a Vantari was in olden days a sepoy, and, as such, owned inam lands. Even now he has a prejudice against ploughing jirayati lands, which a Kapu has no objection to do. Similarly, a Telaga takes pride in taking service under a Zamindar, but, unlike the Vantari, he will plough any land. Kapu women will fetch their own water, and carry meals to the fields for their fathers and husbands. The women of the other classes affect the gosha system, and the men carry their own food, and fetch water for domestic purposes, or, if well-to-do, employ Kapus for these services. It may be added that rich Kapus often exhibit a tendency to pass as Telagas."

Telikula.--The Telikulas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a Telugu oil-presser caste, which should not be confused with Tellakula, a synonym for Tsakala, or with Telli, a caste of Oriya oil-pressers." Telikula is a synonym for the Ganiga or Gandla caste of oil-pressers, derived from the oil , whereas the names Ganiga and Gandla refer to the oil-mill. In the Northern Circars, the name Telikula is used in preference to Ganiga or Gandla, and the oil-pressers in that part of the country are known as Telikula-vandlu. The Telikulas are Onteddu, i.e., use a single bullock for working the oil-mill, whereas, among the Ganigas, there are both Onteddu and Rendeddu sections, which employ one and two bullocks respectively.

Tellakula .--Recorded, in the Census Report, 1901, as a synonym for Tsakala. According to the Rev. J. Cain, the Tellakulas are Telugu washermen , who, in consequence of having obtained employment as peons in Government offices, feel themselves to be superior to other members of their caste.

Telli.--The Tellis are the oil-pressers of the Oriya country, whose caste name is derived from telo, oil. They are apparently divided into three endogamous sections, named Holodia, Bolodia, and Khadi. The original occupation of the Holodias is said to have been the cultivation and sale of turmeric. They may not carry turmeric and other articles for sale on the back of bullocks, and consequently use carts as a medium of transport thereof. And it is further contrary to their caste rules even to assist in loading or unloading packs carried by bullocks. The Bolodias receive their name from the fact that they carry produce in the form of oil-seeds, etc., on pack bullocks, bolodo being Oriya for bullock. The Khadis are mainly engaged in expressing various oils in oil-mills, and this occupation is also carried on by some members of the other sections. All Tellis seem to belong to one gotra, called Karthikeswara. The caste title is Sahu. In social position the Tellis, unlike the Tamil Vaniyans , are on a par with the agricultural castes, and are one of the panchapatako, or five castes from which individuals are selected to decide serious issues which arise among the Badhoyis. The headman of the Tellis is called Behara, and he is assisted by a Bhollobaya, and in some places apparently by another officer called Pento.

It is considered by the Tellis as a breach of caste rules to sail in a boat or ship. If a cow dies with a rope round its neck, or on the spot where it is tethered, the family which owned it is under pollution until purification has been effected by means of a pilgrimage, or by bathing in a sacred river. The Holodias will not rear male calves at their houses, and do not castrate their bulls. Male calves are disposed of by sale as speedily as possible. Those Holodias who are illiterate make the mark of a ball of turmeric paste as a substitute for their autograph on documents. In like manner, the nisanis of the Bolodias and Khadis respectively are the leather belt of a bullock and curved pole of the oil-mill. Among nisanis used by other Oriya castes, the following may be noted:--

Korono , style. Ravulo , trident. Bavuri , sickle. Dhoba fork used for collecting firewood. Brahman, ring of dharba grass, such as is worn on ceremonial occasions.

In their marriage ceremonies, the Tellis observe the standard Oriya type, with a few variations. On the day before the wedding, two young married women carry two new pots painted white on their heads. To support the pots thereon, a single cloth, with the two ends rolled up to form a head-pad, must be used. The two women, accompanied by another married woman carrying a new winnowing basket, and mokkuto , proceed, to the accompaniment of the music of a chank shell and pipes, to a temple, whereat they worship. On their way home, the two girls, according to the custom of other Oriyas castes, go to seven houses, at each of which water is poured into their pots. During the marriage ceremony, after the ends of the cloths of the bride and bridegroom have been tied together, they exchange myrabolams and areca nuts. Until the close of the ceremonies, they may not plunge into a tank or river, and, in bathing, may not wet the head.

Most of the Tellis are Paramarthos, and follow the Chaitanya form of Vaishnavism, but some are Smartas, and all worship Takuranis .

Telugu.--Telugu or Telaga is used as a linguistic term indicating a person who speaks that language. It has, at recent times of census, been returned as a sub-division of various classes, e.g., Agasa, Balija, Banajiga, Bedar, Bestha, Devanga, Holeya, Kumbara, Rachewar, Tsakala, and Uppara. Further, Telugu Vellala appears as a synonym of Velama, and Telugu Chetti as a synonym of Saluppan.

Ten .--Ten or Jen has been recorded as a sub-division or exogamous sept of jungle Kurumbas and Holeyas. Some Irulas style themselves Ten Padaiyachi or Ten Vanniyan, Padaiyachi and Vanniyan being a title and synonym of the Pallis.

Tendisai .--Recorded as a division of Vellalas in the Madura and Coimbatore districts.

Tene .--An exogamous sept of Holeya.

Tengina .--The name of a section of Halepaiks, who tap the cocoanut for extracting toddy.

Tennam.--Tennam or Tennanjanar is recorded as the occupational name of Shanan. Tenkayala occurs as an exogamous sept of Yanadi, and the equivalent Tennang as a tree or kothu of Kondaiyamkotti Maravans.

Tennilainadu.--A territorial sub-division of Kallan.

Terkattiyar .--A term applied to Kallan, Maravan, Agamudaiyan, and other immigrants into the Tanjore district. At Mayavaram, for example, it is applied to Kallans, Agamudaiyans, and Valaiyans.

Tertal.--A division of Toda.

Teruvan.--A synonym of the Malabar Chaliyans, who are so called because, unlike most of the west coast castes, they live in streets .

Tevadiyal .--The Tamil name for Deva-dasis. Tevan occurs as a title of Maravans.

Teyyambadi.--A section of Ambalavasis or temple servants in Malabar, the members of which dance and sing in Bhagavati temples, and perform a song called nagapattu in private houses, which is supposed to be effective in procuring offspring.

Thadla.--Thadla or Thalla, meaning rope, is an exogamous sept of Devanga and Karna Sale.

Thakur.--About a hundred members of this caste are returned, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as belonging to a Bombay caste of genealogists and cultivators. It is recorded, in the Bombay Gazetteer, that "inferior in rank to Marathas, the Thakurs are idle and of unclean habits. Though some of them till and twist woollen threads for blankets, they live chiefly by begging and ballad singing. At times they perform plays representing events mentioned in the Purans and Ramayan, and showing wooden puppets moved by strings."

Thalakokala .--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Thalam .--An exogamous sept or illam of Kanikar.

Thamballa .--An exogamous sept of Tsakalas, members of which will not eat the bean.

Thamburi.--A class of people in Mysore, who are Muhammadans, dress like Lambadis, but do not intermarry with them.

Thanda Pulayan.--For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Ananthakrishna Aiyar. The Thanda Pulayans constitute a small division of the Pulayans, who dwell in South Malabar and Cochin. The name is given to them because of the garment worn by the females, made of the leaves of a sedge, called thanda , which are cut into lengths, woven at one end, and tied round the waist so that they hang down below the knees. The following story is told with regard to the origin of this costume. A certain high-caste man, who owned lands in those parts, chanced to sow seeds, and plant vegetables. He was surprised to find that not a trace of what he sowed or planted was to be seen on the following day. With a view to clearing up the mystery, he kept a close watch during the night, and saw certain human beings, stark naked, come out of a hole. They were pursued, and a man and a woman were caught. Impressed with a sense of shame at their wretched condition, the high-caste man threw his upper garment to the male, but, having nothing to give as a covering for the woman, threw some thanda leaves over her. The Thanda Pulayans are also called Kuzhi Pulayans, as they were found emerging from a pit . The leafy garment is said to be fast going out of fashion, as Mappillas, and others who own the Pulayans, compel them to wear cotton cloths. According to the Rev. W. J. Richards, a division of the Pulayans, who are called Kanna Pulayans, and found near Alleppey, wear rather better, and more artistically made aprons.

The following legend is current regarding the origin of the Thanda Pulayans. In the south, the Pulayans are divided into the eastern and western sections. The former were the slaves of Duryodhana, and the latter were attached to the Pandus. These formed the two rival parties in the war of the Mahabaratha, and the defeat of Duryodhana was the cause of their degradation.

The Thanda Pulayans appear to have been the slaves of the soil till 1854, when they were emancipated. Even now, their condition has not undergone much material improvement. Though they are left more to themselves, they still work for farmers or landlords for a daily wage of paddy . If they run away, they are brought back, and punished. There is a custom that, when a farmer or landlord wants a few Pulayans to work in the fields, he obtains their services on payment of fifteen to twenty rupees to them, or to their master. When a Pulayan's services are thus obtained, he works for his new master for two edangalis of paddy a day. They can obtain their liberation on the return of the purchase-money, which they can never hope to earn. Having no property which they can claim as their own, and conscious perhaps that their lot will be the same wherever they go, they remain cheerful and contented, drudging on from day to day, and have no inclination to emigrate to places where they can get higher wages. The Cherumars of Palghat, on the contrary, enjoy more freedom. Many go to the Wynad, and some to the Kolar gold-fields, where they receive a good money-wage. The Thanda Pulayans work, as has been said, for some landlord, who allows them small bits of land. The trees thereon belong to the master, but they are allowed to enjoy their produce during their residence there. When not required by the master, they can work where they like. They have to work for him for six months, and sometimes throughout the year. They have little to do after the crop has been garnered. They work in the rice-fields, pumping water, erecting bunds , weeding, transplanting, and reaping. Men, women, and children may be seen working together. After a day's hard work, in the sun or rain, they receive their wages, which they take to the nearest shop, called mattupitica , where they receive salt, chillies, etc., in exchange for a portion of the paddy, of which the remainder is cooked. The master's field must be guarded at night against the encroachment of cattle, and the depredations of thieves and wild beasts. They keep awake by shouting aloud, singing in a dull monotone, or beating a drum. Given a drink of toddy, the Pulayans will work for any length of time. It is not uncommon to see them thrashed for slight offences. If a man is thrashed with a thanda garment, he is so much disgraced in the eyes of his fellow men, that he is not admitted into their society. Some improve their condition by becoming converts to Christianity. Others believe that the spirits of the departed would be displeased, if they became Christians.

The Thanda Pulayan community is divided into exogamous illams, and marriage between members of the same illam is forbidden. Their habitations are called matams, which are miserable huts, supported on wooden posts, sometimes in the middle of a paddy field, with walls of reeds, bamboo mats or mud, and thatched with grass or cocoanut leaves. A few earthen pots, bamboo vessels, and cocoanut shells constitute their property. They are denied admission to the markets, and must stand at a distance to make their purchases or sales.

Pulayan girls are married either before or after attaining puberty, but there is special ceremony, which is performed for every girl during her seventh or eighth year. This is called thanda kalyanam, or thanda marriage. It consists in having the girl dressed at an auspicious hour in the leafy garment by a woman, generally a relative, or, in her absence, by one selected for the purpose. The relations and friends are entertained at a feast of curry and rice, fish from the backwater, and toddy. Prior to this ceremony, the girl is destitute of clothing, except for a strip of areca bark.

At the marriage ceremony, the tali is made of a piece of a conch shell , which is tied on the bride's neck at an auspicious hour. She is taken before her landlord, who gives her some paddy, and all the cocoanuts on the tree, beneath which she happens to kneel. When the time has come for her to be taken to the hut of the bridegroom, one of her uncles, taking her by the hand, gives her into the charge of one of her husband's uncles. On the third morning, her paternal and maternal uncles visit her at the hut of the bridegroom, by whom they are entertained. They then return, with the bride and bridegroom, to the home of the former, where the newly-married couple stay for three days. To ascertain whether a marriage will be a happy one, a conch shell is spun round. If it falls to the north, it predicts good fortune; if to the east or west, the omens are favourable; if to the south, very unfavourable.

Every kind of sickness is attributed to the influence of some demon, with whom a magician can communicate, and discover a means of liberation. The magician, when called in professionally, lights a fire, and seats himself beside it. He then sings, mutters some mantrams , and makes a discordant noise on his iron plate . The man or woman, who is possessed by the demon, begins to make unconscious movements, and is made to speak the truth. The demon, receiving offerings of fowls, sheep, etc., sets him or her free. A form of ceremonial, called urasikotukkuka, is sometimes performed. At a place far distant from the hut, a leaf, on which the blood of a fowl has been made to fall, is spread on the ground. On a smaller leaf, chunam and turmeric are placed. The person who first sets eyes on these becomes possessed by the demon, and sets free the individual who was previously under its influence. In the event of sickness, the sorcerer is invited to the hut. He arrives in the evening, and is entertained with food, toddy, and betel. He then takes a tender cocoanut, flower of the areca palm, and some powdered rice, which he covers over with a palm leaf. The sick person is placed in front thereof, and a circle is drawn round him. Outside the circle, an iron stylus is stuck in the ground. The demon is supposed to be confined within the circle, and makes the patient cry out "I am in pai and he is beating me," etc. With the promise of a fowl or sheep, or offerings thereof on the spot, the demon is persuaded to take its departure. Sometimes, when the sorcerer visits a house of sickness, a rice-pan containing three betel leaves, areca nuts, paddy, tulsi , sacred ashes, conch and cowry shells, is placed in the yard. The sorcerer sits in front of the pan, and begins to worship the demon, holding the shells in his hands, and turning to the four points of the compass. He then observes the omens, and, taking his iron plate, strikes it, while he chants the names of terrible demons, Mullva, Karinkali, Aiyinar, and Villi, and utters incantations. This is varied by dancing, to the music of the iron plate, sometimes from evening till noon on the following day. The sick person works himself up into the belief that he has committed some great sin, and proceeds to make confession, when a small money fine is inflicted, which is spent on toddy for those who are assembled. The Thanda Pulayans practice maranakriyas, or sacrifices to certain demons, to help them in bringing about the death of an enemy or other person. Sometimes affliction is supposed to be brought about by the enmity of those who have got incantations written on a palm leaf, and buried in the ground near a house by the side of a well. A sorcerer is called in to counteract the evil charm, which he digs up, and destroys.

When a member of the tribe has died an unnatural death, a man, with a fowl and sword in his hands, places another man in a pit which has been dug, and walks thrice round it with a torch. After an hour or two, the man is taken out of the pit, and goes to a distance, where certain ceremonies are performed.

The Thanda Pulayans worship the gods of Brahmanical temples at a distance of nearly a quarter of a mile. A stone is set up in the ground, on which they place tender cocoanuts and a few puttans . A temple servant takes these to the priest, who sends in return some sandal paste, holy water, and flowers. They worship, as has been already hinted, demons, and also the spirits of their ancestors, by which small brass figures of males and females representing the pretas are supposed to be possessed. They worship, among others, Kandakarnan, Kodunkali, Bhairavan, and Arukola pretas, who are lodged in small huts, and represented by stones. In the month of May, they celebrate a festival, which lasts for several days. Chrysanthemum and thumba flowers are used in the performance of worship, and paddy, beaten rice, tender cocoanuts, toddy, etc., are offered up. There is a good deal of singing, drum-beating and devil-dancing by men and women, who on this occasion indulge liberally in toddy. The Pandavas, whom they call Anju Thamburakkal, are favourite deities. They devise various plans for warding off the evil influence of demons. Some, for example, wear rolls of palm leaf, with incantations written on them, round their necks. Others hang baskets in the rice fields, containing peace offerings to the gods, and pray for the protection of the crop. Wherever there is a dense forest, Matan and Kali are supposed to dwell, and are worshipped. From the end of November to April, which is the slack season, the Thanda Pulayans go about dancing from hut to hut, and collecting money to purchase fowls, etc., for offerings. Club-dancing is their favourite amusement, and is often indulged in at night by the light of a blazing fire. The dancers, club in hand, go round in concentric circles, keeping time to the songs which they sing, striking each other's clubs, now bending to ward off a blow on the legs, or rising to protect the head.

The dead are buried, and lighted torches are set up all round the grave, on to which the relations of the dead person throw three handfuls of rice. Near it, squares are made in rice flour, in each of which a leaf with rice flour and paddy, and a lighted torch or wick is placed. The chief mourner, who should be the son or nephew, carrying a pot of water, goes several times round the grave, and breaks the pot over the spot where the head rests. A few grains of rice are placed at the four corners of the grave, and a pebble is laid on it, with mantrams to keep off jackals, and to prevent the spirit from molesting people. Every morning the chief mourner goes to the grave, and makes offerings of boiled rice, gingelly seeds, and karuka grass. On the fourteenth day, he has an oil-bath, and, on the following day, the Pulayans of the village have a feast, with singing and beating of drums. On the sixteenth day, which is pulakuli or day of purification, the chief mourner makes offerings of rice balls, the guests are fed, and make a present of small coin to the songster who has entertained them. Similar offerings of rice balls are made to the spirit of the deceased person on the new-moon day in the month of Kartigam. During the period of pollution, the chief mourner has to cook his own food. The spirits of deceased ancestors are called Chavar , and are said to manifest themselves in dreams, especially to near relations, who speak in the morning of what they have seen during the night. They even say that they have held conversation with the deceased. The Rev. W. J. Richards informs us that he once saw "a little temple, about the size of a large rabbit-hutch, in which was a plank for the spirits of the deceased ancestors to come and rest upon. The spirits are supposed to fish in the backwaters, and the phosphorescence, sometimes seen on the surface of the water, is taken as an indication of their presence."

The Thanda Pulayans will not eat with the Ulladans or Parayans, but stand at a distance of ninety feet from Brahmans and other high-caste people. They are short of stature and dark-skinned. Like the Cherumans, the women adorn their ears, necks, arms and fingers with masses of cheap jewellery.

Thappata .--An exogamous sept of Odde.

Thathan .--The equivalent of the Telugu Dasari.

Thatichettu .--An exogamous sept of Karna Sale and Odde.

Thavadadari.--The name of a section of the Valluvans , who wear a necklace of tulsi beads . The tulsi or basil is a very sacred plant with Hindus, and bead necklaces or rosaries are made from its woody stem.

Thelu .--Thelu and Thela are recorded as exogamous septs of Padma Sale and Madiga. The Canarese equivalent Chelu occurs as a sept of Kuruba.

Thenige Buvva.--A sub-division of Madigas, who offer food to the god in a dish or tray at marriages.

Thikka .--A sub-division of Kuruba.

Thippa .--An exogamous sept of Karna Sale.

Thogamalai Korava.--Recorded as a synonym of a thief class in the southern districts of the Madras Presidency. In a recent note on the Koravas, Mr. F. Fawcett writes that "a fact to be noted is that people such as the members of the well-known Thogamalai gang, who are always called Koravas by the police, are not Koravas at all. They are simply a criminal community, into which outsiders are admitted, who give their women in marriage outside the caste, and who adopt children of other castes."

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