Read Ebook: Cassell's book of birds; vol. 4 by Brehm Alfred Edmund Jones Thomas Rymer Translator

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In the first place then, Eusebius himself tells us what method he intends to pursue respecting the Canon of Scripture. After enumerating the writings bearing the name of St Peter, as follows;-- The First Epistle, which is received by all, and was quoted by the ancients as beyond dispute; The Second Epistle, which tradition had not stamped in the same way as Canonical , but which nevertheless, appearing useful to many, had been studied with the other Scriptures; The Acts, Gospel, Preaching, and Apocalypse of Peter, which four works he rejects as altogether unauthenticated and discredited--he continues :--

'But, as my history proceeds, I will take care , along with the successions , to indicate what Church writers from time to time have made use of any of the disputed books , and what has been said by them concerning the Canonical and acknowledged Scriptures, and anything that concerning those which do not belong to this class. Well, then, the books bearing the name of Peter, of which I recognise one Epistle only as genuine and acknowledged among the elders of former days , are those just enumerated . But the fourteen Epistles of Paul are obvious and manifest . Yet it is not right to be ignorant of the fact that some persons have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it was disputed by the Church of the Romans as not being Paul's. And I will set before on the proper occasions what has been said concerning this also by those who lived before our time .'

He then mentions the Acts of Paul, which he 'had not received as handed down among the undisputed books,' and the Shepherd of Hermas, which 'had been spoken against by some' and therefore 'could have no place among the acknowledged books,' though it had been read in churches and was used by some of the most ancient writers. And he concludes:--

'Let this suffice as a statement of those Divine writings which are unquestionable, and those which are not acknowledged among all.'

This statement is inserted after the record of the martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul, and has immediate and special reference to their writings. The Shepherd of Hermas is only mentioned incidentally, because the author was supposed to be named in the Epistle to the Romans. But the occasion serves as an opportunity for the historian to lay down the general principles on which he intends to act. Somewhat later, when he arrives at the history of the last years of St John, he is led to speak of the writings of this Apostle also; and as St John's Gospel completes the tetrad of Evangelical narratives, he inserts at this point his account of the Four Gospels. This account concludes as follows :--

'Thus much we ourselves concerning these ; but we will endeavour more particularly on the proper occasions by quoting the ancient writers to set forth what has been said by anyone else also concerning them. Now, of the writings of John, the first of his Epistles also is acknowledged as beyond question alike among our contemporaries and among the ancients, while the remaining two are disputed. But respecting the Apocalypse opinions are drawn in opposite directions, even to the present day, among most men . Howbeit it also shall receive its judgment at a proper season from the testimonies of the ancients.'

After this follows the well-known passage in which he sums up the results at which he has arrived respecting the Canon. With this passage, important as it is in itself, I need not trouble my readers.

Here again it will be seen that the same distinction as before is observed. Of the Gospels the historian will only record anecdotes concerning them. On the other hand, in the case of the Apocalypse mere references and quotations will be mentioned because they afford important data for arriving at a decision concerning its Canonical authority.

Hitherto we have discovered no foundation for the superstructure which our author builds on the silence of Eusebius. But the real question, after all, is not what this historian professes to do, but what he actually does. The original prospectus is of small moment compared with the actual balance-sheet, and in this case time has spared us the means of instituting an audit to a limited extent. With Papias and Hegesippus and Dionysius of Corinth, any one is free to indulge in sweeping assertions with little fear of conviction; for we know nothing, or next to nothing, of these writers, except what Eusebius himself has told us. But Eusebius has also dealt with other ancient writings in relation to the Canon, as, for instance, those of Clement of Rome, of Ignatius, of Polycarp, of Irenaeus, and others; and, as these writings are still extant, we can compare their actual contents with his notices. Here a definite issue is raised. If our author's principle will stand this test, there is a very strong presumption in its favour; if it will not, then it is worthless.

Let us take first the Epistle of CLEMENT OF ROME. This Epistle contains several references to Evangelical narratives--whether oral or written, whether our Canonical Gospels or not, it is unnecessary for the present to discuss . It comprises a chapter relating to the labours and martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul . It also, as our author himself allows , 'here and there ... makes use of passages from Pauline Epistles.' It does more than this; it mentions definitely and by name St Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians, alluding to the parties which called themselves after Paul and Cephas and Apollos . Of all this Eusebius says not a word. He simply remarks that Clement, by

'putting forward many thoughts of the to the Hebrews, and even employing some passages from it word for word , shows most clearly that the document was not recent .'

This is strictly true, as far as it goes; the passages are too many and too close to leave any doubt about their source; but the Epistle to the Hebrews is not directly named, as the Epistle to the Corinthians is.

'Writing to the Smyrnaeans, he has employed expressions I know not whence, recording as follows concerning Christ:--

It should be added that, though Eusebius does not know the source of this reference, Jerome states that it came from the Gospel of the Hebrews .

Now let us suppose that these Epistles were no longer extant, and that we interpreted the silence of Eusebius on the same principle which our author applies to Papias and Hegesippus and Dionysius of Corinth. 'Here,' we should say, 'is clearly a Judaising Christian--an Ebionite of the deepest hue. He recognises St Peter as his great authority. He altogether ignores St Paul. He knows nothing of our Canonical Gospels, and he uses exclusively the Gospel of the Hebrews. Thus we have a new confirmation of the T?bingen theory respecting the origin of the Christian Church. The thing is obvious to any impartial mind. Apologetic writers must indeed be driven to straits if they attempt to impugn this result.' It so happens that this estimate of Ignatius would be hopelessly wrong. He appeals to St Paul as his great example . His Christology is wholly unlike the Ebionite, for he distinctly declares the perfect deity as well as the perfect humanity of Christ . And he denounces the Judaisers at length and by name . What then is the value of a principle which, when applied in a simple case, leads to conclusions diametrically opposed to historical facts?

From Ignatius we pass to POLYCARP. Here again the genuineness of the Epistle bearing this Father's name does not affect the question; for it is confessedly the same document which Eusebius had before him. In Polycarp's Epistle also there are several coincidences with our Gospels. There is a hardly disputable embodiment of words occurring in the Acts. There are two or three references to St Paul by name. Once he is directly mentioned as writing to the Philippians. There are obvious quotations from or reminiscences of Romans, 1, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, 1 Thessalonians, 1, 2 Timothy, not to mention other more doubtful coincidences. Of all this again Eusebius 'knows nothing.' So far as regards the Canon, he does not think it necessary to say more than that 'Polycarp in his aforesaid writing to the Philippians, which is in circulation to the present day, has used certain testimonies from the First Epistle of Peter . Here again, we might say, is a Judaiser, the very counterpart of Papias. This inference indeed would be partially, though only partially, corrected by the fact that Eusebius in an earlier place , to illustrate his account of Ignatius, quotes from Polycarp's Epistle a passage in which St Paul's name happens to be mentioned. But this mention is purely accidental; and the sentence relating to the Canon entirely ignores the Apostle of the Gentiles, with whose thoughts and language nevertheless this Epistle is saturated.

'Whence the Holy Scriptures and all the inspired men teach us, one of whom, John, says, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God," showing that at the first God was alone, and the Word in Him. Then he says, "And the Word was God; all things were made by Him, and without Him was not anything made."'

This quotation is direct and precise. Indeed even the most suspicious and sceptical critics have not questioned the adequacy of the reference . It is moreover the more conspicuous, because it is the one solitary instance in which Theophilus quotes directly and by name any book of the New Testament. Here again Eusebius is altogether silent. But of the treatise no longer extant he writes, that in it 'he has used testimonies from the Apocalypse of John.' This is all the information which he vouchsafes respecting the relation of Theophilus to the Canon.

'Since, at the commencement of our treatise, we have made a promise, saying that we should adduce at the proper opportunities the utterances of the ancient elders and writers of the Church, in which they have handed down in writing the traditions that reached them concerning the Canonical writings, and Irenaeus was one of these, let me now adduce his notices also, and first those relating to the sacred Gospels, as follows.'

He then quotes a short passage from the third book, giving the circumstances under which the Four Gospels were written. Then follow two quotations from the well-known passage in the fifth book, in which Irenaeus mentions the date and authorship of the Apocalypse, and refers to the number of the beast. Eusebius then proceeds:--

When the young are reared, the Lapwings associate in flocks which, at the end of autumn, exchange the higher moorlands for lower ground, and frequent the ploughed fields. When going to a distance, they fly with speed often in an irregular body, but sometimes in lines, alighting in silence after various evolutions. About the middle of March they return to higher ground, again to resume their family duties.

The Lapwing feeds on worms, insects, slugs, and larvae, and on this account is frequently kept in gardens; but when thus domesticated, it needs a supply of food, when wintry frosts debar it from its usual diet.

The two English names of this bird have been derived from its most striking peculiarities, the one, Peewit, from its singular cry, and the other, Lapwing, from the strange, remarkable flapping of its wings during flight.

THE SPUR-WINGED LAPWING.

The SPUR-WINGED LAPWING is characterised by a spur-like appendage on its wings, its long legs, three-toed feet, a blunt crest upon the head, and its comparatively pointed wing, in which the second quill exceeds the rest in length. In this species the mantle is greyish brown, part of the head and the under side are black; the sides of the head, throat, belly, and the nape and region of the wings are all white; the primary quills and tail-feathers are principally tipped with black, some of the largest feathers on the wing-covers and two entire tail-feathers being white. The sexes are alike in plumage, and do not vary in their tints at any season of the year.

This bird is very common in Egypt, where it usually occupies the vicinity of water; nevertheless it entirely avoids the sea-coast, but occasionally sojourns near lakes of brackish water. In the northern portion of Central Africa it is constantly seen, but is rare in Nubia, Eastern Soudan, and Habesch. During the spring and autumn it sometimes wanders as far as Greece, and, according to Lindermayer, is occasionally met with there on the sea-coast. Whether it also breeds in Greece, is at present uncertain. This bird, called "Siksak" by the Arabs, in imitation of its peculiar cry, is sometimes erroneously supposed to be the bird alluded to by Herodotus, as clearing the parasites from the teeth of the crocodile. This mistake has no doubt arisen from the fact that it frequently occupies the sandbanks on which these monsters repose, and is often seen running fearlessly over and about their huge bodies. Like the rest of their brethren, these Lapwings render themselves most obnoxious to the naturalist or sportsman, by the pertinacity with which they warn all their companions of the approach of danger, and by thus constantly annoying him, destroy the impression of pleasure that the grace and ease of their movements would otherwise excite. Day and night this restlessness continues, and has given rise to a legend among the Arabs that this tormenting little bird received the curse of perpetual sleeplessness, together with the spur upon its shoulder, as a punishment for former indolent habits. Towards its feathered associates it exhibits the same irritable demeanour, frequently attacking even such as are larger than itself with astonishing boldness, and often inflicting serious damage with its armed wing. Insects, worms, mussels, and sand, are usually found on dissection in its stomach. Its flesh is very unpalatable. The period of incubation commences about the middle of March. In Egypt a moist field is usually selected by a breeding pair, whilst on the Upper Nile sandbanks are preferred. The eggs are smaller than those of the European Lapwing, and are coloured with mixed green, yellow and grey, marked with blackish brown spots, which do not extend over the narrow end. We have found as many as six eggs in one nest, but possibly they were deposited by more than one female. Occasionally we have seen earth strewn on the nest, but whether this was the result of accident or design we could not ascertain. When first hatched the young are covered with greyish down, but soon acquire plumage similar to that of the adults, and leave the nest very shortly after quitting the shell. Like others of their kind, they run with astonishing rapidity, and conceal themselves with great dexterity at the approach of danger. As regards their movements and habits, these Lapwings resemble such species as we have already described.

The LAPPETED PEEWITS are recognisable by the skin-like appendages at the base of the beak, and by a horny excrescence at the joint of the wing; the powerful bill is moderately long and the foot rather large; the hinder toe is but slightly developed.

THE LAPPETED PEEWIT.

The LAPPETED PEEWIT is reddish grey on the upper parts of the body and white on the nape and under side; the head, throat, tips of the quills and tail-feathers are black. The eye is a beautiful golden yellow, the beak blood-red at its base and black at the tip, and the foot red. The length of this species is ten inches and two-thirds, and the breadth twenty-four inches; the wing measures six inches and three-quarters, and the tail three inches and a half.

These birds occupy barren plains and live in pairs or small families. During our travels through Bahiuda and Cordofania we saw them daily, and upon one occasion met with them in the Samchara, seeking for insects among the droppings of the cattle. In their habits they resemble both the Common and Spurred Peewit, their flight being similar to that of the latter bird. In disposition they are shy and wary. We were unable to obtain further particulars concerning them.

THE TURNSTONE.

The TURNSTONE is the representative of a sub-family, characterised by their powerful body, short neck, comparatively large and high-browed head, and long pointed wing, in which the first quill is the longest, some of the feathers being of unusual length. The tail, composed of twelve feathers, is scarcely of medium size, and has a gently-rounded tip; the conical beak is shorter than the head, curves slightly upwards, and is flattened at its culmen; the short legs are powerful; the foot furnished with four toes; and the brightly-coloured plumage thick and compact. During summer the adult male has the brow, cheeks, a broad collar on the nape, the lower part of the back, the throat, feathers of the lower wing-covers, and a stripe above the wings of a pure white; a line commencing near the brow and passing near the eyes to the throat, the fore part and sides of the neck and breast is black; the mantle-feathers are spotted black and red, and those on the crown striped black and white; the feathers of the wing-covers are chestnut-brown, spotted with black, the quills blackish, and the tail-feathers white at the roots and tip, with a broad black stripe near the extremity; the rump also shows a broad brown stripe. The eye is brown, the beak black, and foot orange-yellow. This species is nine inches long and eighteen across the span of the wing; the wing measures six inches and the tail six inches and a half. In the young the plumage is a mixture of blackish brown and rust-yellow, the fore part of the body being greyish black.

These birds are met with in all parts of the world, everywhere occupying the sea-coast. In Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland, they appear at the end of April or beginning of May and leave again about the end of the last week of August, at which time they occur on the shores of the Mediterranean. They visit England regularly, remaining during the winter and going north to breed. They are restless and active birds, and run rapidly, with wings lowered, but usually only for a short distance, pausing from time to time, for a few moments, in the course of their swift career; their flight is easy, and accompanied by a variety of graceful evolutions. Their cry, which is shrill and penetrating, is uttered with such various degrees of rapidity, as to produce very different effects. In disposition they are cautious and usually shy. Audubon states that he had ocular demonstration of the fact, that, as its name imports, this species actually turns over stones and other objects to search for food, and gives the following interesting account of the proceedings of four of these birds, which he observed on the beach of Gaveston Island, whilst he was engaged together with a sailor in carrying the carcase of a deer to be washed:--"They merely," he says, "ran a little distance out of our course, and on our returning came back immediately to the same place; this they did four different times, and after we were done remained busily engaged in searching for food. None of them were more than fifteen or twenty yards distant, and I was delighted to see the ingenuity with which they turned over the oyster-shells, clods of mud, and other small bodies left exposed by the retiring tide. Whenever the object was not too large, the bird bent its legs to half their length, placed its bill beneath it, and with a sudden, quick jerk of the head pushed it off, when it quickly picked up the food which was thus exposed to view, and walked deliberately to the next shell to perform the same operation. In some instances when the clusters of oyster-shells or clods of mud were too heavy to be removed in the ordinary manner, they would not only use the bill and head, but also the breast, pushing the object with all their strength, and reminding me of the labour which I have undergone in turning over a large turtle. Among the seaweeds which had been cast on the shore they used only the bill, tossing the garbage from side to side with a dexterity extremely pleasant to behold. In this manner I saw these four Turnstones examine almost every portion of the shore, along a space of from thirty to forty yards; after which I drove them away, that our hunters might not kill them on their return."

Upon the coast of Cape May and Egg Harbour this species is known by the name of the "Horsefoot Snipe," from the fact that it subsists during a portion of the summer almost entirely on the spawn and eggs of the great "king crab," called by the common people the "horsefoot." This spawn may often be seen by bushels in the hollows and eddies on the coast.

During the breeding season these birds retire to high northern latitudes, so that their mode of nidification was long a mystery, until Mr. Hewitson, who made diligent search for the Turnstone's nest on the coast of Norway, was at last successful. "We had," he writes, "visited numerous islands with little encouragement, and were about to land upon a flat rock, bare, except where here and there grew tufts of grass or stunted juniper clinging to its surface, when our attention was attracted by the singular cry of a Turnstone, which in its eager watch had seen our approach and perched itself upon an eminence of the rock, assuring us by its querulous oft-repeated note and anxious motions that its nest was there. We remained in the boat a short time, until we had watched it behind a tuft of grass, near which, after a minute search, we succeeded in finding the nest, in a situation in which I should never have suspected to meet with a bird of this sort breeding; it was placed against the ledge of the rock, and consisted of nothing more than the drooping leaves of the juniper-bush, under a creeping branch of which, the eggs, four in number, were snugly concealed and admirably sheltered from the many storms by which these bleak and exposed rocks are visited, allowing just sufficient room for the bird to cover them. We afterwards found more nests with little difficulty. All the nests contained four eggs each. The time of breeding is about the middle of June. The eggs measure one inch and two lines in breadth, and are of an olive-green colour, spotted and streaked with ash-blue and two shades of reddish brown."

The parents are much attached to their offspring. The habits of the latter resemble those of young Plovers. Audubon mentions an instance in which one of these birds was reared by a lady, who fed it on boiled rice and bread soaked in milk.

THE PIED OYSTER-CATCHER, OR SEA PIE.

The PIED OYSTER-CATCHER, or SEA PIE , possesses a compact body, large head, long straight beak, which is much compressed and of conical form; moderately high, powerful feet, furnished with short broad toes connected by a skin; medium-sized and pointed wings, in which the first quill is the longest; and a short straight tail, composed of twelve feathers. The plumage on the upper portions of the body is of a glossy black; the neck, crop, and rump, a patch under the eye and the belly are white; the primary quills and tail-feathers black, with white roots. The eyes are bright blood-red, edged with orange. The broad rings that surrounds the eyes and the beak are vermilion, the latter tipped with a lighter shade; the feet are dark flesh-red. The length of the male is sixteen inches; its breadth across the wings thirty-one inches and a half; the wing measures nine inches and a half, and the tail fully four inches. The female is smaller than her mate, and has less black upon her breast. During the winter this species has a crescent-shaped white patch upon the throat.

The Pied Oyster-catchers are met with along almost the entire coast of the Old and New Worlds . They are also found in Greenland and on the islands of the Northern and Arctic Oceans. During the winter they appear in Southern Europe, but are by no means common. The migrations of these birds vary considerably with the climate of their native haunts; such as inhabit shores warmed by the Gulf Stream remaining in the same localities from one year to another; whilst in those latitudes where the seas are covered with ice during the cold season, they are compelled to go south in order to obtain the requisite supply of food. During the course of these enforced wanderings the mainland is rarely traversed, the fugitive keeping as near as possible to the shore, or, when necessary, crossing even large tracts of water without any inconvenience. Occupants of the shores of the eastern and northern seas seek their winter quarters principally in France and the north of Spain, whilst those occupying the coast of China appear regularly in Southern India. In Great Britain the Pied Oyster-catchers are permanent residents, and never extend their flight to any great distance, but after the breeding season assemble in flocks, and in winter betake themselves to estuaries and promontories. In April these flocks disperse in pairs, and rove about the sandy beach in small parties. While searching for food they usually keep apart from other birds, but are occasionally seen in company with the Curlew, Turnstone, and Redshank. At high-water they retire to rocky headlands or similar places of safety, where they remain until the turn of the tide has left their hunting-grounds again exposed. While reposing, according to Macgillivray, the Sea Pies stand with their legs quite straight, or on one leg only, the other being drawn up; the body is held in a horizontal position; the neck retracted; the head either directed forward or with the bill buried among the feathers of the back. In this attitude they present a very curious appearance when seen in a high wind, as each bird directs its breast towards the quarter from which it blows. On a sandy beach they often follow each other in long lines, or crouch to the ground. Their flight is strong and steady, performed by regular beats of the extended wings, with the neck drawn in, and the feet directed backwards. When going to sleep they rest on one leg only. Over the surface of the sandy shore they run with great rapidity, and wade with ease in muddy places, their short, flat-soled feet being well adapted for that purpose. During the period of incubation the Sea Pies utter a great variety of pleasing notes, whilst at other times their cry is not particularly agreeable. Of all the many feathered occupants of our shores, these birds are by far the most restless and pugnacious, though apparently without malice. Towards all their larger companions they exhibit an incessant desire to resent intrusion, and at once dart upon a bird of prey with loud cries, and drive the unwelcome visitor away from the spot. Should no foreign foe appear, and thus afford them an opportunity for venting their exuberant spirits, the males will harry and annoy each other until their fury rising, the strife that apparently began in sport terminates in a real battle, during which the antagonists strike each other most mercilessly with their wings and beak. Towards men they exhibit extreme shyness, and, except during the breeding season, scarcely permit his approach. In this particular, however, they show much intelligence, and readily distinguish the shepherd or fishermen from their enemy the sportsman. "After the breeding season," says Macgillivray, "the Sea Pies, especially plentiful in the Scottish Isles, form flocks that are frequently very numerous, being composed of from twenty to one hundred individuals or more. At this period they are met with chiefly on the low rocky shores, or at the mouths of rivers, where at low water they obtain their food, which consists of limpets, barnacles, small bivalve shells swallowed entire, young crabs, and other marine animals. Although frequently seen on extensive low sands, they seem rather to betake themselves thither for security than for the purpose of looking for food. On low, pebbly, muddy, or sandy shores they always prefer the edge of the water, in which they wade, although they search the exposed parts. Limpets and barnacles form their chief food; but, although they have been said to eat oysters and large bivalve mollusca, I have not found such animals in their stomach. The bivalve shells found in their gizzard or oesophagus are generally, when of small size, either entire or merely crushed, but when large, are deprived in a greater or less degree of their testaceous envelopes. Along with their food they swallow particles of gravel, frequently of considerable size. I have found some a quarter of an inch in diameter."

Bivalve shells, when closed, are usually opened by these birds by striking them at the hinge, while cockles are obtained by holding the shell with the foot and wrenching with the bill as with a crowbar. When the shores are flat and the surface thus remains covered with a shallow stratum of water, after the tide has ebbed, the Oyster-catchers find their prey more readily, as the shells are then partially opened, and they can easily insert their wedge-shaped bill and force them asunder; but where the sand soon dries and there are no rocks from which the limpet can be obtained, they follow the line of the advancing and retreating waves. Such of these birds as are stationary during all seasons commence the business of incubation as early as the middle of April, while such as migrate do not lay until somewhat later in the spring; at this season, after the usual rivalry between the males, the pairs keep apart from each other, but frequently remain in the immediate vicinity of some of their weaker feathered associates, with whom they live in the utmost harmony. The nest of the Sea Pie is a mere hollow in the shore, and is usually situated amongst the tangled weed thrown above high water mark, or on grassy spots in the immediate vicinity of the sea. The eggs, two or three in number, are large and of an oval form with a pale brownish shell, spotted, streaked, and very variously marked with light violet, deep greyish brown and greyish black. The female, who alone broods, does not sit during the noonday hours, and hatches her little family in about three weeks. The young at first conceal themselves if alarmed, but even at a very early period can run, swim, and dive with considerable facility. Whilst in charge of their offspring, the parents exhibit unusual courage and foresight, and should the mother perish, the father at once undertakes all her duties. The flesh of the Sea Pie is unpalatable, but by many the eggs are much esteemed. Gadamer states that a pair of Oyster-catchers reared by him from the nest became so tame that they knew his voice and greeted his appearance with loud cries. These birds were allowed to run freely about the poultry-yard, and rendered excellent service to its more timid occupants by warning the Fowls of the approach of a Hawk, or any other feathered marauder.

The SNIPES form a second division of the Stilt-walkers, which embraces several minor groups, all characterised by having the hinder part of the body of cylindrical form, a moderately long neck, a medium-sized and much-arched head, and a long slender beak; the latter is curved or straight throughout its length, with the sides compressed and grooved to the tip, which is obtuse and in some instances flexible, of a much softer texture than in most birds, and frequently covered with a highly sensitive membrane. The long slender tarsi are usually more or less high; the toes generally long, the lateral ones sometimes united to the middle toe by a membrane; the hind toe short, resting on the ground, or entirely wanting; the long pointed wing is more or less sickle-shaped; and the short tail composed of from twelve to twenty-six feathers. The plumage varies considerably in thickness and coloration, both in the various groups and at different seasons of the year; the sexes are, however, very similar to each other. The members of this section usually inhabit marshy land, the borders of swampy lakes, and the sea-coast. In the breeding season they live in pairs, but congregate in large flocks during the autumn or winter, and are more or less migratory. Fruits, worms, slugs, and aquatic mollusca, afford them their principal means of existence; some few also eat seeds. Both sexes assist in the process of incubation, and generally construct a slight nest upon the ground. The eggs are pear-shaped and from two to four in number.

The TRUE SNIPES are characterised by their powerful but comparatively short body, moderately long neck, which is compressed at its sides, a very high-browed head, and large, prominent eyes. The long slender beak is straight on the side and rather turned down near the tip, which is obtuse and bent over that of the lower mandible; the extremity of the bill is thickened, soft, and very tender at its extremity, so that this part, which is richly supplied with nerves, serves as a delicate organ of touch, and is used for searching in the soft ground for the insects and worms that constitute the food of these birds. The more or less long tarsi are covered in front with narrow transverse scales, the anterior toes are long, that in the middle being of unusual length, the hinder toe is short, elevated, and reaches to the ground, the wings are broad, but comparatively short, and the short broad tail, composed of from twelve to twenty-six feathers, is rounded at its extremity. The plumage of this group, which is soft and thick, varies in its coloration according to the situations occupied by its possessor.

The Snipes must be regarded as natives of the north and temperate portions of the earth, although they also visit its warmest latitudes. Many species frequent swampy woods, but for the most part they seek their food in marshes and morasses, remaining concealed during the day and searching for their food principally early in the morning or during the evening hours. Although by no means of social disposition, they are occasionally seen congregated together in considerable numbers; these assemblages are, however, owing apparently to the attraction of a suitable locality, as each bird lives, as it were, for itself and pays but little heed to its companions. Early in spring, the males exhibit a very pugnacious disposition, and have many fierce encounters with their rivals before obtaining a mate. The movements of the Snipes, both on the ground and in the air and water, are extremely active and easy, and the facility with which they seize and extract their insect prey from the mud and ooze, must be regarded as truly astonishing. Their voice is usually monotonous and harsh, but during the period of incubation the male indulges in a variety of gesticulations and peculiar notes. When alarmed, these birds generally lie close to the ground or among the herbage, or suddenly starting on wing escape by a flight which is short, elevated, rapid, and irregular. The four moderate-sized and pear-shaped eggs have a dirty yellow or greenish shell spotted with brown, and are deposited in a slight hole in the ground. The young, when they are hatched, are clad in a downy chequered garb of black and brown, and quit the nest on the day they escape from the shell. The Snipes are migratory in their habits and generally breed in high northern latitudes, but some are indigenous in this country, in all parts of which they rear their young, being especially numerous towards the north of Britain. Their flesh is much esteemed.

THE WOODCOCK.

The WOODCOCK possesses a comparatively strong beak, rounded at the tip, and short stout feet with a very small claw upon the hind toe. The wing is blunt, and the tail composed of twelve feathers. Upon the forehead the plumage is grey, the sides of the head and nape are striped brown and reddish yellow; the rest of the upper portions of the body are spotted with various shades of brown, grey, and black. The large eye is brown, and the beak and foot horn-grey. This species is twelve inches long and twenty-two broad; the wing measures three, and the tail three inches and a half.

The MARSH SNIPES are characterised by their comparatively long, flat beak, moderately long, bare foot, and long, thin toes, which are entirely unconnected; the wing is much incised, and the short tail composed of from fourteen to twenty-six feathers.

THE COMMON SNIPE.

The COMMON SNIPE, or BECASSINE , has the upper portion of the body brownish black, and is decorated with a broad, rusty yellow stripe upon the centre of the head, and four long lines of the same colour on the back and shoulders; the under side is white, the fore part of the throat grey, while the upper parts of the breast and sides are spotted with brown. The tail is formed of fourteen feathers. The eye is dark brown, the beak black, and the foot deep grey. This species is eleven inches long and seventeen broad, the wing measures five inches, and the tail two inches and a quarter.

The MOOR SNIPES are recognisable by their short high beak, with narrow culmen and broad tip; their graduated tail, composed of twelve feathers, and pointed at its centre; their very muscular stomach; and the brilliant metallic gloss upon the plumage of the back.

THE JACK SNIPE.

The JACK SNIPE is only about nine inches long and fifteen broad; the wing measures four inches, and the tail about one inch and two-thirds. In this species, the bridles, a stripe below the cheeks and the head, are brown, with two lines above and below the eyes of reddish yellow; the blackish blue mantle-feathers have a beautiful green and purple sheen, and are decorated with four reddish yellow stripes. The throat, breast, and sides are grey, lined and spotted with brown; the rest of the body is white. The quills and tail-feathers are pale black; the latter edged with reddish yellow. The sexes are almost alike in colour; during the spring the plumage of the female is of a reddish hue upon the wings, and that of the young less resplendent and glossy.

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