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Lumber has its very legitimate and varied uses, but among them is not outside work where wind and rain and frost and fire search out its weaknesses. In view of its very nature and the great variety of its proper uses, it should never displace the exterior masonry wall, which in stone, tile, or brick makes the most secure and enduring structure. If the 80 per cent of building in this country, now done of frame, were put into brick, or other durable and fire-resistive materials, it would result in a great economic national gain, people would have better and more substantial houses, and the lumber which everybody needs would be conserved for the legitimate uses to which it is admirably adapted.

TYPES OF FACE BRICK WALL

There are three possible ways of using face brick in building a wall, determined by the backing up material employed, each of which will be given special attention in the following pages.

First, there is the solid brick wall, consisting of face brick with a common brick backing. Of the strength, permanence, and structural value of this construction there can be no question. Objection is sometimes made to its cost but, in view of the facts we give later, this objection loses its force and proves to be a claim of actual economy. The only other objection heard is that of the dampness of the wall. This comes from one or both of two causes, pervious mortar joints, or sweating due to condensation of interior moisture on the cooled wall. Either condition may be completely overcome by furring the interior wall surface, a method recommended in this Manual, and provided for in the plans offered. The furring provides an air space that insulates against dampness and cold. With this furring, the other methods, sometimes employed, of mixing so-called waterproofing material with the mortar or of using colorless liquid waterproofing on the surface of the brickwork are not necessary. Even the furring, in certain climatic conditions as proved out by local experience and practice, is not needed. But in any case, it must always be seen that all the exterior joints of the wall, especially the head or vertical joints, are solidly filled with mortar. The possibility of efflorescence, which occasionally appears on the surface of the brick when the outside of the wall has been subjected to excessive moisture, may be prevented to a great extent by avoiding such ledges and projections in construction as permit the soaking of water into the surface of the brick work. See Glossary, page 110.

Secondly, the face brick wall may be built by using hollow tile in place of common brick for backing. This wall, like that of solid brick, being all of burnt clay, has the advantage of being fire-resistive, although insurance rates are not always as favorable because, in case of fire, the salvage is not as large as with the solid wall. Some builders prefer this type of wall, claiming that it is less expensive to build and that the hollow dead air spaces act as a heat insulation, giving a drier and warmer wall. On these points we have no means of forming a definite, final opinion. Your best plan would be to consult both the common brick and hollow tile people so as to form a judgment of your own on the subject. Either wall is sound construction and will give you entire satisfaction.

The third type of wall, known as veneer, is simply the application of face brick to the wooden framing of a frame house, in place of the clapboards or shingles. Although, as a substantial or a fire restrictive wall this type is not equal to solid brick or hollow tile, it has its friends among builders, largely on the score of local custom, familiarity, speed of construction, and cost. What it has to recommend it is the fact that in outer appearance and value it is a brick house, and in reality a big step in the right direction. But whichever type of wall you build, it is the face brick that gives to it character, distinction, class, all of which means not only deep personal satisfaction to the owner, but real money in higher rental or sales value, far in excess of the initial cost of the face brick over poorer and less attractive material.

Take the frame wall. Where it is exposed to the weather, it shrinks, decays, and depreciates, requiring repeated paintings and repairs. Now substitute, at an added cost of only 4 or 5 per cent, a fine face brick for the drop siding and at once there is practically cut out painting, repairs, and depreciation. The brick veneer has surrounded the house with a solid, monolithic, permanent, windproof, shell of fireproof material, so that in consequence the owner has on the exterior, to all intents and purposes, the strength and beauty of a face brick house. Besides his own personal satisfaction, he has added many times more than 4 or 5 per cent to the market value of his property. Or, suppose your client has an old frame house that is built on a good plan, but outwardly grown dilapidated in appearance and hard to rent or sell. Induce him to veneer it with an attractive face brick, as we explain on a later page, and for every dollar he puts in he will get two out.

Then take hollow tile wall construction and compare the value of it finished with stucco or with face brick. The face brick will cost from 2 to 3 per cent more on the cost of the house, but what will it give the owner in wear, appearance, and solidity of construction! If you stucco hollow tile the interior face of the wall in most cases must be furred. If you use face brick, not only additional solidity and strength are added to the wall but if, as we recommend throughout this Manual, an air space is left between brick and tile, the inside furring is not needed. Besides, stucco is apt to stain, crack, or, in damp climates with freezing weather, peel off in spots, presenting an unsightly appearance. You can assure your client, who is debating between stucco and face brick, that years of usage will prove the brick surface to be both in artistic appearance and actual economy by far the better investment. It costs a little more at the start, but is worth much more in the end.

Or, it may be that your client concludes to build a thoroughly good solid brick wall, but wants to save 3 to 4 per cent on the total cost of the house by using common brick throughout. This will be a good wall, no doubt, but how will it look! Common brick are not made with an eye to external appearance; their great merit lies in solid structural value. Occasionally a well-burned selected common brick, made of a clay that burns to a good color may be found and used, with proper care of bond and mortar joint, for facing purposes; but as a rule, the method of manufacturing common brick, and the structural uses for which they are intended do not contribute to the attractiveness of the wall surface. Hence, the natural development of the great face brick industry which adds to the solid structural merits of brick the invaluable merit of looks.

And how much do looks have to do with both the sentimental and commercial value of a house! What does the good wife think of the looks of the house she lives in? What do the neighbors think of it? And to be purely practical, what does the prospective renter or buyer think of it? You know that when a man wishes to sell his house, he cleans up the yard, repairs the fence, patches up the holes, and paints the house from top to bottom because he knows the value of looks. He knows that his restoring the house to its pristine glory attracts the purchaser, helps to persuade him, and secures a far better price of sale.

Cleanliness, looks, beauty, have a very real value in dollars and cents. The same principle applies to a face brick finish of the wall surface. Face brick are made with more care, are handled and shipped with more care, and laid with more care, just for the purpose of producing a more attractive wall. When you use face brick for your clients, you give them the last word in wall construction, which is at once, as no other material, strong, enduring, comfortable, fire-safe, economical, and beautiful.

PUTTING IN FOUNDATIONS

The following data have been compiled and the drawings made by Mr. George W. Repp, a Chicago architect, and are based on the most widely followed building practice.

There is no intention of trying to inform the master mason or the master carpenter about his craft with which he is perfectly familiar, but to show the master carpenter builder the best methods of handling the brick problems that may confront him in solid brick, hollow tile, and veneer wall construction. A glossary of technical terms will be found at the close of this volume.

Whatever type of construction is chosen, solid brick, hollow tile, or veneer, it should rest upon a solid brick foundation. In the majority of cases, where soil conditions are favorable, the brick foundation walls of moderate sized houses do not need a footing except at points bearing concentrated loads. Naturally, the excavation should be carried down to good solid earth, free from loose, spongy soil or filled-in ground which might later permit sufficient unequal settlement to result in serious cracks throughout the wall of the house. Where conditions seem to require a footing, it may be either of brick laid in good cement mortar or of concrete as shown in our working drawings, and should be strengthened at points of special bearing stress. Which footing is chosen will depend largely on convenience of getting local material and labor. The bottom of the foundation wall or footing must always be below frost line which, of course, varies in different sections of the country; and this rule applies as well to all brickwork outside of the foundation wall proper.

Where the conditions of soil require, porous tile with open joints should be laid around the base of the foundation wall, not above the level of the basement floor nor below the bottom of the wall or footing, and slightly pitched to a point where it may be connected with the sewer or some natural outlet. Where this tile is laid in loose sandy Soil, the open joints should be wrapped with building paper to prevent the sand from clogging the drain. In heavy clay soil, the tile should be covered to the depth of about a foot with crushed stone to prevent packing of clay around the tile.

Foundation walls, technically speaking, are those walls below the grade line of the building that support the super-structure. Similar walls around areas are termed retaining walls and are not properly a part of the foundation. The thickness of foundation, as well as other walls for different structures, is usually established by ordinance in cities and towns; but, where there are no ordinances on the subject, a brick foundation wall of 12 inches, for two-story buildings, or one of 8 inches, for small one-story buildings, conforms to good practice.

The foundation wall should be built of a hard-burned common brick, and laid in Common Bond , with a good cement-lime mortar, starting at the bottom with a header course. As the headers, which serve as transverse bond, are not long enough to extend through the entire thickness of the 12-inch, as they do through the 8-inch wall, the header courses in the 12-inch wall very naturally cannot be on the same level at the front and back of the wall. In the bottom course, the header row is laid inside and the stretcher row outside, while in the next course above the position is reversed, and so on wherever the bonding header courses come.

The first course of brick is well bedded in mortar on the footing or the solid ground, as the case may be. At the corners and at proper intervals along the wall where necessary, a few brick, four or five courses high, are laid up in the advance to serve as leads or starting points for the bond and supports for the line which guides the mason to the proper level and alignment of the brick. The mortar is well spread with the trowel along the top of the brick course, and the brick to be laid is firmly pressed down on this mortar bed next the lead. The mortar thus squeezed out of the joint is cut off by the trowel and scraped on the head of the next brick to be laid which is then pressed on the mortar bed and shoved against the brick just laid, so as to squeeze mortar into the bottom of the vertical or head joint which is then thoroughly filled from the top by slushing with mortar. The stretcher courses for structural reasons should be well slushed with mortar between the front and back rows or tiers of brick, laid to break joint.

As the work progresses, the joints on the inside face of the basement wall should be neatly struck, while the outside joints should be cut flush for receiving a waterproof coating. The inside joints are struck by running the point of the trowel, held firmly at an angle, along the upper or lower edge of the brick, thus making a smooth beveled joint .

The wall should be widened where indicated on any plan to serve as a foundation for the fireplace, and should be built hollow to provide for an ash pit. Where other chimneys occur, the wall at their base should be corbeled out to serve as a support for them.

After the wall has risen four or five feet, scaffolding is erected to carry on the upper portion. The scaffolding, necessary for the usual house, or other small building, consists of a series of rigid horses or trestles, approximately 5'-0" wide and 5'-0" high, on which are placed a half-dozen 2" x 10" planks laid close. The joists for the floor above may be used for this planking and then lifted into place when the wall is ready to receive them, thus effecting a saving in labor. Care should be taken to keep the horses several inches away from the inside face of the wall, lest the jarring caused by bricks and mortar being deposited on the scaffold may push the green wall out of plumb. The scaffolding for the foundation wall may be dispensed with, if it is found more convenient to lay the upper portion of the wall from the outside.

All brick foundation walls should be water-proofed on the outside except in gravelly, sandy, or very dry soil. In case there is danger of moisture rising in the wall by capillary attraction, the top of the footing should be water-proofed, before starting the walls, by a course of slate well bedded in mortar or by a strip of composition roofing. In wet locations, it would be well to carry the waterproofing under the basement floor also. For waterproofing the foundation walls, in slightly wet soils where the drainage is fair, a coating of one-half inch cement plaster may be applied to the outside surface of the brick as the wall is carried up. This plaster should be composed of one part Portland cement and two parts clean, sharp sand. The possibility of settlement cracking this cement coating makes it undesirable for use in heavy soils such as wet clay, or in low-lying land where the subsoil is likely to be wet. In such conditions, a coating of asphalt applied while boiling hot, thoroughly covering the brickwork, is very satisfactory. A less expensive though excellent waterproofing, which we suggest in our specifications, is made of three parts of tar and one of pitch. Tar alone is sometimes used, but is not recommended as it becomes brittle and is subject to cracks, similar to cement. Except in dry, warm weather, it is well to prepare the wall for the waterproofing by sizing or priming it with hot creosote, to overcome any dampness that might prevent the asphalt or tar-pitch from taking proper hold.

SOLID FACE BRICK CONSTRUCTION

Where ordinances do not govern, the thickness of brick walls above the foundation may be 8 inches for one or two-story small houses, except in the case of an unusually high gable where the first story wall should be 12 inches .

At the grade line the face brick is started, sometimes with a rowlock course or a soldier course, set either flush with the outer surface of the foundation wall or, as usual, slightly projected, in which case it is known as the water table. On the other hand, the entire base or lower portion of the building from the grade to the first floor sometimes extends as a water table beyond the wall above. Figs. 2-7 show various ways of treating this portion of the wall which add to the interest of the brickwork.

The method of laying the face brick is substantially the same as that for the foundation wall except that much greater care must be taken with the bond and mortar joints on the surface of the wall. A description of various bonds and patterns will be found on pages 33-35.

The method of bonding the face brick to the common brick backing follows the usual method Bonding means of headers every five or six courses, the headers in other than Common Bond, not used for bond, being cut in half. In the widely used Stretcher Bond where no headers occur except at corners, three methods of bonding may be employed. First, but only in case of walls 12 inches or more thick, the back corners of the face brick may be clipped so that the backing brick fit diagonally into the notches thus provided . This sort of concealed bond is weak and should be avoided.

Secondly, the face brick may be tied to the backing by laying metal strips or wires, supplied by any material dealer, in the bed joints of face and backing brick . Although this method is frequently used and in a way answers the purpose, we do not regard it as the simplest and best.

We recommend the third method which is a natural bond, thoroughly workmanlike and sound. Every sixth or seventh course, pairs of headers are laid with a tight buttered, and hence invisible, joint alternating with the stretchers. As the joint between the headers is hardly seen, the two headers give the appearance of a stretcher, so that the effect of the Running or Stretcher Bond is maintained .

The face brick are laid up five or six courses in advance of the backing and the joints on the face of the wall are finished as the work progresses. On outside exposed surfaces, the struck joint should be avoided, and particular care should be taken in seeing that all head or vertical joints are thoroughly filled with mortar from bottom to top. Each face course should be started so as to care for the bond or pattern chosen, as well as for the transverse structural bond. The backing is then laid in the usual way, always, so far as possible, breaking joint with the face brick. No attempt, except where strength is specially demanded, should be made to slush the thin space between the front and back tiers of brick, as this space helps to make the wall drier and warmer. Wherever the common brick backing is to be exposed, the joints must be neatly struck as in the basement wall. At the close of the day's work, face and backing should be brought to approximately the same level and covered to protect the work from the weather.

The brickwork should be stopped at the point where the first floor joists are to rest upon it, and care should be taken to have the top course perfectly level, so that the joists may be set without wedging or blocking. The joists set by the carpenter should have, at intervals of approximately six feet, wrought iron joist anchors solidly spiked to them, and extending into the wall. Great care should be exercised in placing these anchors as near the bottom of the joists as possible in order to lessen the strain on the brick wall, in case a fire causes the joists to drop.

For the same reason, the ends of all the joists, with or without anchors, should be beveled so that, in like conditions, the joists will readily fall out without injury to the wall. Fig. 10 illustrates the correct method of attaching the anchor to the joist. The dotted lines show how the joist would drop without damaging the wall. Fig. 11 shows the destructive effect caused by the anchor being placed at the top of the joist. The importance of these points cannot be emphasized too much as walls have had to be rebuilt which by proper framing construction would have stood intact. After the joists are placed, the brickwork is continued up between, and leaving a small "breathing" space around, them. The same method of joisting is followed at the upper floors.

If the lower part of a wall is thicker by a brick than the upper part, it should be carried up its full thickness nearly to the top of the joists Fire Stops where ft is stepped back to the inside face of the upper part, thus forming with the plastering a fire stop at the top of the joists, while a projection of a quarter brick length should always be provided as a fire stop at the bottom of the joists, as shown in Fig. 12. If the wall is the same thickness throughout, the brickwork should be corbeled out between the joists two inches, the full height of the joists, to form a fire stop as in Fig. 13. The object of the fire stop is to block all possible passage of fire from the space between the joists to that between the furring strips on the wall, or the reverse. Without these fire stops, a fire originating in the floor could communicate with the furring space on the wall above, or originating in the furring space could communicate with the floor. With the stops, the fire is confined to certain spaces and is retarded instead of spreading. These corbels also serve the wholesome purpose of checking vermin of all kinds from passage through the floor and wall spaces.

Masonry walls that are to be furred, sometimes have, as the work progresses, common wood laths laid in the joints of the brickwork on the inside face of the wall, about every seventh course, except over chimneys. The lath should be staggered so as to avoid two vertical lath joints in succession. These serve as nail holds for the furring strips as explained on page 24.

Where local requirements demand a 12-inch wall, the method of construction is the same as in the 8-inch wall, except that two rows or tiers of backing brick, instead of one, are carried up to the advanced level of the face brick, leaving the thin spaces between the tiers of brick open as the best way of securing a warmer and drier wall. Of course, in the case of piers and points in the wall that carry heavy loads, all interior joints should be well slushed with mortar for evident structural reasons.

Before the top of the wall is reached, the anchors for bolting down the roof plate should be placed and the brickwork carried up around them . They should be made of half-inch bolts at least 12 inches long, with a tee or washer at the bottom and a nut and washer at the top, and should be set approximately every 6 feet along the wall. After the carpenter has placed the roof plate and before it is bolted down, the mason should bed with cement mortar under it.

When the wall is finally carried to the top and the roof rafters set, but before the roof boarding is in place, the mason should fill in between the roof rafters with one tier of brick as shown in Fig. 16. This is called nogging. Its purpose is to block effectually the openings between the roof rafters and prevent the wind from entering the walls and attic. This adds greatly to the comfort of the house in cold weather. In warm climates nogging will be found unnecessary.

The Chimney

While the chimney may be made one of the most charming and effective elements of the house design, its structural and practical necessities are its most striking features.

The proper construction, size, and height of chimneys are of the utmost importance both for the successful working of the heating system and for the prevention of fires. The chimney may, though it need not be, a point of danger to the safety of the home. A little intelligent care in its construction will prove to be the best insurance. As a first precaution, all wood framing of floor and roof must be kept at least 2 inches away from the chimney and no other woodwork of any kind be projected into the brickwork surrounding the flues.

Chimneys should be tightly built of solid brick, have no openings except those required for the connection of the heating apparatus, and should always extend at least one foot above the highest point of the roof. In some cases, depending on local surroundings, it may be desirable to carry them somewhat higher. Those terminating below the level of the roof usually have poor draft because the wind, sweeping across or against the roof, may form eddies that drive down the chimney or check the natural rise of the smoke .

The flues of chimneys should not start from the bottom of the foundation but only about a foot below the first smoke pipe openings, and should be lined with terra cotta flue lining their entire height. Care should be taken in setting flue linings to be sure that the joints are well cemented and, at the same time, that all spaces between the lining and brickwork are tightly filled with mortar. Any openings in the joints of the tile lining, or even of the brickwork, not only check the draft but are a fire menace. Cement plaster should not be substituted for the flue lining as it is likely to crack and fall off, thus leaving the flue in a dangerous condition. However, where flue linings are not available, a strong smooth cement plaster may be used, in which case the chimney wall should be at least 8 inches thick.

Modern heating plants necessitate accurate construction of chimneys, and most manufacturers of heating apparatus nowadays recommend the area and height of the flue necessary for their installations. The following table will prove useful in considering the question of heating plant or fireplace, by showing the dimensions of flue linings to be ordered when the required area is ascertained.

Table of Commercial Flue Linings

Where two or more flues are contained in one chimney, they should always be separated by a brick partition 4 inches thick, called a withe, and bonded to the outside brickwork as shown in Fig. 18. Chimneys should run as straight as possible from bottom to top, in order to secure better draft and facilitate cleaning. If, however, offsets are necessary from one story to another, they should be very gradual, never less than at an angle of 30? from the vertical. If abrupt offsets occur in flues, soot will soon be deposited, choking the flue and making cleaning almost impossible . Care should be taken while the chimney is building that the bottom does not become filled with mortar or brick bats. At the bottom of the furnace flue in the basement, an iron cleanout door should be provided as a convenience for removing soot.

Chimneys erected on the interior of a building are apt to be more efficient because the warm air surrounding them facilitates the draft, while those located on the exterior naturally are somewhat affected by the cool air on the outside.

Angles, Bays, and Corners

All the houses represented in this book are designed without any obtuse or acute angled corners. If, however, you wish to erect a brick building with an angular corner or bay, specially shaped face brick for the purpose, called splay or octagon brick, may be obtained from the dealers or manufacturers. If for any reason these special shapes are not easily available, the angle may be formed by the use of standard size brick. The method shown in Fig. 20 is used only on cheap work and should be discouraged, for it leaves ledges for the lodgment of snow and dirt, decreases the thickness of the wall, and besides is rather unsightly. The better method, as shown in Fig. 21, also has the objection of forming ledges for the lodgment of snow and dirt, but it makes a wall of full thickness, and has been used by some architects in a very artistic manner. The best method of all, for treating these corners, is shown in Fig. 22. Standard bricks are used with the minimum amount of cutting. Fig. 23 shows a method of laying brick at an acute angled corner. It is simple to lay up, there is little cutting of brick, and it presents a better looking corner than one with a sharp angle.

Openings

Window sills in brick buildings should be of brick or stone. Cement, unless pre-cast, is not well adapted for the purpose. Brick window sills are preferable to stone for, besides adding a charming touch to the building, they are inexpensive since they are of the same material as the wall and placed by the same workmen who lay up the wall, thus obviating the necessity of additional labor to place the heavy stone. Brick for sills should be laid on edge and pitched approximately at an incline of 1 inch in 6 to shed the water. They should also project at least an inch beyond the face of the wall to form a drip, and be laid in rich cement mortar composed of equal parts of cement and sand, with joints well filled and finished with a hard smooth surface. Door sills may be of wood, brick, or stone. In case of a stone sill, it should be exactly the height of either two or three courses of brick.

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