Read Ebook: Practical forging and art smithing by Googerty Thomas F Thomas Francis Lake Edward J Author Of Introduction Etc

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In hardening thin pieces of steel such as knives, very thin milling cutters, etc., there is always difficulty in preventing warping after hardening. Two heavy surface plates, planed on one side, are used. On one of these plates equal parts of tallow and lard are spread 1/4 inch thick. The knife is heated in a steam pipe with one end plugged and having fire under and over it. When an even red heat is reached, the knife is brought out and set on the oil and at the same time the top plate is set onto the knife until cool. This hardens the blade and keeps it from springing. The knife is brightened and the temper is drawn to a dark straw color by holding it on a hot iron.

Very small pieces of steel are packed into an iron pipe or box surrounded with charcoal. The whole is then heated red and the pieces are dumped out and cooled in water. To draw temper, they are put in an iron ladle filled with lard oil that is heated on the fire.

All small pieces of tool and spring steel should be welded with separate heats. A little practice and a clean fire, with some good welding compound, are necessary. In separate heat welding of flat steel, the flat sides of the scarfs are put together instead of the beveled ones. The scarfs are shown in Figure No. 115. The method of riveting and splitting small pieces of flat steel to hold them together while taking the heat is not to be recommended because after they are put together in this manner the lap is double thick, and in raising the heat there is always danger of over-heating each side of the lap. Separate heats and a clean fire is the best method to use to make a good weld, unless the steel is heavy. In this case, it is split and forked as previously explained.

A piece of metal of any kind is said to be "annealed" when made very soft. Steel should be annealed before it is filed, drilled, or machined, as it is a very hard metal to work when cold. The method of annealing is first to heat the piece to a red heat. It is then covered with warm, slacked lime so that the air will not come in contact with it until cool. A simple way to anneal, when in a hurry, is to heat the steel red, setting it in a dry place on the forge until black. It is then plunged into water quickly and brought out. This operation is repeated until the piece is cool. Steel is also annealed by heating the piece red and setting it on the forge until cool. The slower steel is cooled, the softer it becomes. Wrought iron and mild steel forgings should always be annealed when used in work where there is danger of breaking them.

This tool is used to scratch holes on the surface of metal, and also to lay out shapes on metal. Figure 116 shows the dimensions of stock. The piece should be carbon steel. One and one-half inches from one end, the bar is drawn out until it measures 2 1/4 inches in length, as shown in Figure 117. It is then bent on an angle as shown in Figure 118. This part is now heated and hammered over the horn of the anvil to form the eye or ring. It is then twisted by catching one end in the vise and twisting to the right. The point is next drawn out as shown in Figure 119. The point is then ground or filed and the awl tempered hard.

Figure 120 shows the size of stock and Figure 121 shows the center-punch completed. The top part is first made, then the bottom is drawn out to a taper. In doing this, it is first drawn square, then eight sided and finally rounded. The point is ground and the punch is tempered to a purple color. For heavy centering a larger size steel should be used.

Hand-punches are made of various sizes of stock, 5/8 in., 3/4 in. and 7/8 in., and are used for hot punching. Figure 122 shows the size of stock for a punch that will be useful in the school shop, and Figure 123 shows the completed punch. It is made in the same manner as described for the center-punch. This punch must not be tempered. For punching square holes the punch is drawn square, and the ends of all hand-punches are made smaller than the hole to be punched.

High speed steels, due to their hardness and durability, retain their edge when cutting at extremely high speeds.

It has only been of recent years that high speed steels came into use. Before this time self-hardening steels were made by Jessop and Mushet which were in general use. They were tempered by heating to a dark red and left to cool in the air. The high speed steels of today are heated to 2,000? or 2,200? Fahr., or a white heat bordering on a welding heat.

The chemical composition of these new steels are only known by their makers. However, it is said that they contain carbon, tungsten, chromium, manganese and other elements.

The great advantage in using high speed steel, is that a machine can be run three times as fast as one using carbon steel, without destroying the edge of the tool. The output is therefore greater. Of course, in order to force this steel to do a great amount of work the machine tools should be constructed to stand heavy strains. All kinds of tools are now being made from high speed steel.

For light lathe work, high speed steel is used in the adjustable tool holder. The most common tool for doing heavy work is the round nose which is made from various size steel.

High speed tool steel is sold under many brands. The method of handling is about the same for all. However each manufacturer will give the method which is best for his particular make of steel. In forging high speed lathe tools, a furnace or clean fire with plenty of coke is used. The steel is heated to a bright red heat, holding the steel at this heat as nearly as possible when hammering. Forging at a low heat is liable to cause the steel to burst. When the tool is forged, it is laid in a dry place on the forge to cool. When hardening, the point of the tool is brought to a white welding heat, about 2,100? Fahr., and this is noticeable by the appearance of melted borax, forming on the nose. The tool is now held in a compressed air blast, or dipped into sperm, linseed or lard oil until cool.

The process is the same as the one used for carbon steel, heating to a red heat and covering the piece with slacked lime until cold.

In cutting high speed tool steel, the bar may be nicked with the emery wheel, then broken.

In working tool steel or iron of any weight the blows of the hammer must be heavy. Light blows stretch the outer part of the metal and not the center. This is liable to fracture it. The blow must be heavy so as to penetrate thru the bar. A trip hammer of ordinary size run by a belt is a very economical tool for the school shop. It is inexpensive and can be used to advantage in drawing out large pieces of stock, especially tool steel.

Every pupil should have more or less practice in the handling of a trip or steam hammer.

II--ART SMITHING

Wrought Iron Work--Making a Wrought Iron Leaf--Making a Volute Scroll--Grilles.

At the present time great interest is being taken in the teaching of art work in our public schools. Every school of importance is doing something in the way of giving the pupils a knowledge of art. One working in the school crafts should study art. There is no craft work that one can do well without this training. With art training one can see defects in his work much quicker than without such training. In fact, it opens up a new world of possibilities to the workman. The more one is convinced of the value of thoro acquaintance with the medium in which he is working, the higher the class of work he produces.

All fine workmen in any craft have more or less ability to draw. This not only gives them power to transfer their conceptions to paper, but it also helps them in the execution of the work. The iron-worker in particular should practice free-hand drawing. It enables him to form his material into proper shape. As a general thing, forge work is fashioned into shape by eye.

Wrought iron-work is one of the oldest of the handicrafts. It was extensively practiced by the ancients and carried to a high degree of excellence, both in execution and design. During the Middle Ages and up to the seventeenth century some of the finest examples were produced. A study of the older forms, especially those of Medieval German production, shows iron fashioned in keeping with its properties and with the spirit of the craftsman. It is impossible to utilize natural forms in wrought iron without convention. Realistic iron flowers are inconsistent with the material in which they are executed. They kill the strength and destroy the character of the metal. This should be learned early by one working in iron. When the iron-worker of the past imitated nature too closely in leaf and flower, he failed as a designer and his work deteriorated. Iron as a crude metal must be fashioned into shapes that are suitable and practical for the material. For instance, it readily allows itself to be worked into graceful curved forms which can be used to advantage in grille work. It may be surface-decorated by using chasing tools. This may be done on hot or cold metal, depending upon the depth wanted. Iron may also be punctured with openings thru the metal which give the play of light and shadow that is very pleasing. Grotesque figures and an endless variety of leaf forms may also be worked in iron. These should be conventionalized. Embossed or repousse work may be done to advantage. In doing this the metal while hot is hammered on the end grain of elm wood and on forms made from iron. When cold it is hammered on lead, and steel tools are used to sharpen up the detail.

In Figure 1 is shown a leaf made from Number 16 sheet steel and Figure 2 shows a pattern of the same leaf. In making a leaf of this kind, a full-size drawing is made just as it should look when modeled. From this drawing a pattern is developed as the leaf would look when in the flat. It is impossible to lay it out accurately. The method used is to find the stretch out of the leaf by measuring along its greatest length. This can be done by using a pair of dividers. The length found is then laid off on the metal. The widest parts of the leaf are then measured and laid on the metal. Having the length and width, the rest can be sketched in. The leaf is now cut out with a narrow cold chisel that can be made to follow the curved line. This cutting should be done while the metal is cold. The leaf shown in the illustration has been fluted with a steel hand-tool. In doing this a tool as shown in Figure 3 is used. This tool is made smooth, rounded at the base like an ordinary fuller and then hardened. The fluting is also done while the metal is cold. Lines are marked on the metal with a slate pencil and then sunken with the tool and hammer. In modeling the leaf a hammer like the one shown in Figure 4 is used. It is called the modeling hammer. This hammer has a ball on one end and a pein on the other, both of which are made very smooth and without sharp corners. These hammers are made in various sizes. In modelling the leaf it is heated and hammered on the back side with the ball of the hammer, using the elm block to hammer on. The ends of the lobes are then formed to give the whole a decorative effect. These leaves are generally used in grille work and are welded into position. In Figure 5 is shown part of a grille with a similar leaf welded on. In welding leaves to the members of grille work the bottom part of the leaf is formed around the bar; caught with a pair of tongs, it is heated, using a flux when hot. It is then taken to the anvil and welded. A small collar is finally welded in front of the leaf as shown in the illustration.

The following exercises will be of a simple nature to give the beginner an idea of the tools and processes used in producing this kind of work by hand. The writer does not claim that the following method is the only one to be used in doing this work. There are many other ways to execute these exercises and one should use his own ingenuity in designing and executing individual pieces. It is hoped that pupils will be encouraged to originate designs of their own to work out in this interesting metal.

The tools used in making these exercises will be the ordinary forge shop tools that can be made, and will be described later on, as they are needed.

In Figure 11 and Figure 12 are shown grilles which are made from flat stock. The scrolls in this case were made after the bars had been welded in place. They could be made first and then riveted or fastened with iron bands, but welding of course makes a better job.

In Figure 13 is shown a drawing for a welded scroll. Notice the dotted line at A. This is where the weld is made. At B, the pieces are shown in position to be welded by the separate heat method. In doing this the length is measured on the drawing with a string, and the three pieces cut. The two short ones are upset; and one is laid on top of the other; then heated and welded at the same time they are scarfed. The long piece is upset and welded to the short one. They are then formed.

Twisting--Braiding--Making a Fire Shovel.

Figure 15 shows the dimensions of stock for a twisted poker-handle. The four 1/4 -inch rods are upset on one end until they measure six inches. They are then welded together on this end. This is done by first twisting a strong binding wire around the rods to keep them in place while taking the heat. In welding, they are welded directly on the ends and scarfed as shown in Figure 15.

Notice that the scarf is made so that the point of the scarf on the other piece will come onto a one-quarter inch rod and not between the two. The scarf must not be hammered farther back from the ends than 3/8 -inch. The 3/8 -inch bar is now upset on one end and scarfed. The two parts are then welded, smoothing the weld with the hand hammer. The end of the handle is welded directly at the ends of the rods. The entire handle is heated uniformly, caught in a vise and twisted to the right. If any part twists faster than another, that part is cooled with water dropped from a hole in the bottom of a tin cup. In twisting the handle, the 3/8 bar is caught in the vise. A strong pair of tongs are used on the end of the handle to twist it, or the end of the handle can be caught with a monkey wrench. The point of the poker is drawn to a square point and then flattened. In making pokers or shovels, the stock may be either round or square. In Figure 17 are shown some handles that are suitable for pokers or shovels. A method of braiding the last handle shown in the illustration is to weld four ?/??-in. rods of either round or square stock to a piece of 1/2 -inch round stock. Two of the rods are then bent over at right angles to the one-half inch piece. The others are bent over them, and so on until finished. The four rods are then welded at the top and a ring turned. The last illustration shows the method of bending the rods.

The development of the pattern for the shovel blade is shown in Figure 20. At the top is shown a side and end elevation of the shovel. The dimensions should be drawn full size. The shapes of the sides and of the ends are found by measuring from the elevation. The pattern should be made from sheet iron and kept for future use.

In forming the shovel, the sides are first bent up by using the vise and heel of the anvil. This forming must be done while the metal is cold. The end of the shovel may be bent by hammering it over a heavy, flat piece of iron. The corners are hammered around the sides by catching the shovel in the vise. They are fastened by drilling holes thru both pieces and riveting them, using a rivet set to finish the rivets. In fastening the handle to the blade or shovel, three Number 10 round-head rivets are used. If desired, the handle can be made from larger stock, also increasing the size and the thickness of the shovel.

Making a Door-latch--Making a Hinge--Making a Candle-stick.

The plates are now filed to straighten the square holes, and the holes on the corners for screws are drilled. Figure 24 represents the catch, which can be made as shown, and the knob which is worked out on the end of a rod, as shown in Figure 25. It is hammered on the outer edge of the anvil. After each blow it is turned until finished. Then it is cut off and the tenon is filed. The guard shown in Figure 26 is cut from a flat piece as represented. The bar is made from 1/2 by ?/??-in. stock, drilled, and a slot is sawed for the spring. The spring is about 1/8 by ?/??-in. and can be made from spring steel.

Figure 27 represents a hinge that can be made from 1/8 -in. soft steel. After the design is sketched with a slate pencil on the metal, the open parts are drilled and cut out. The outside is next cut with a chisel and the edges are filed smooth. The eye or joint of the hinge is formed without welding, by hammering it around an eye pin of the desired size. The prongs or projections to form the knuckle are filed so that they fit into one another. The interlacing is done with a square end punch in the same manner as explained for the latch. A great variety of designs of this kind can be made to advantage in iron. A drawing of a simple strap hinge is shown in Figure 28. The part of the strap at A on the drawing is made greater in length than width for appearance. This gives the strap apparent strength and emphasizes its length.

The hinge can be made any length desired but should be carefully proportioned; the eye can be made loose or welded. In welding a hinge-eye the lap should always be on the back. Note the drawing of the eye ready for welding in Figure 29. In making hinges, the making of the eye is always the first operation. A welded eye makes the strongest hinge; but it can be made with a loose eye if desired. In bending and finishing the eye, an eye-pin should be used to true the hole. An eye-pin is a piece of round steel of the desired size drawn tapering on each end so that it can be driven thru a hole. The projections that form the joint for a loose eye hinge should be cut out before the eye is made. If the stock is light, the joint in either a loose or a welded hinge can be filed or sawed after the eye is turned. In a heavy eye the projections are laid off and marked on the metal while flat. The bar is then heated and split lengthwise from one side, starting 1/2 -inch from the end, and cutting long enough to make the eye. The eye is then formed and welded, and pieces are cut out leaving alternating projections which can be filed to fit.

Exercise No. 6 is a candle-stick. The reproduction, Figure 30, shows the finished piece. The drawing, Figure 31, at A, gives the dimensions; at B, is shown the pattern of the bottom in the flat. The bottom is cut from a sheet of soft steel, using a narrow cold chisel. The edge is then filed and bent up about one-quarter of an inch. In doing so, it is hammered over a round block or iron which fits into the square hole of the anvil. See Figure 32. The handle is formed by heating it, and hammering it over the horn of the anvil. In making the socket to hold the candle as shown at C, Figure 31, the piece is cut from number 20 soft steel. At D, is illustrated the stock cut ready for forming.

In cutting this piece, the shape is sketched with a slate pencil on the metal. Five holes are now drilled, the center hole, ?/?? in. in diameter and four ?/??-in. holes at the base of leaves. A narrow cold chisel is then used which will cut on a curved line. The edges of the pieces are then filed; the piece is heated and hammered on the elm block to raise it. In raising the socket, it is heated in the center, set over a depression in the block and hammered. This brings the wings or leaves up. They are brought up until they overlap one another, the leaves forming a square box. The whole piece is then heated, placed on the end of a 3/4 -in. round bar, setting the whole into a swage, and the leaves are fitted around the bar by hammering. The socket is then riveted in place. A rivet is put in the end of the handle to hold it in place. The candle-stick is now smoothed with a file and smoked over the fire, then oiled.

Making a Drawer Pull--Chasing--Making a Door-knocker--Repousse--Perforated Decoration.

Drawer pulls can be of one part, the handle being fastened directly to the drawer, or they may be of two parts, the handle and plate. The handle can be made stationary on the plate or movable. In Figure 33 are shown some hinges, drawer pulls and key escutcheons. The open work is cut out while the stock is hot, or if light stock is used, it may be drilled, cut and filed while the plate is cold.

The stock used in making a plate for a pull, somewhat like those illustrated, is represented in Figure 34. After the plate is cut to size, which is done cold with a hand chisel, the outside surface is hammered while hot with a ball hammer, drawing the plate a little thinner near the edge. This hammering gives the surface a rough texture. The edges are now ground or filed to shape and the holes are drilled as shown in the drawing. The round holes are for screws to fasten the pull, and the square holes are to fasten lugs, on which the handle is to swing. The lugs are shown in Figure 35. The tenon can be filed, the top rounded, the holes drilled, and the lugs riveted into the plate. When riveting the lugs, they are caught in a vise, the plate set on and the tenons are riveted tight into the holes. The square holes in the plate should be countersunk a little on the back before the lugs are riveted.

The handle is a movable one, and the drawing is shown in Figure 36. The different steps in making the handle are represented in Figure 37. When the stock, which should be soft steel, is cut, the ends are heated and drawn out tapering to ?/?? inch at the end. One-and-a-half inches from each end of the bar is marked with a center punch. The ends are now bent over 1/4 inch, then the bar is bent at the center marks. When the handle is formed to fit the plate it is smoothed with a file. If desired, a line can be chased on the handle and around the edge of plate. In doing this a short, light chisel is used. After lines are traced on the plate with a slate pencil the chisel is set on the line and struck with a light hammer; at the same time it is drawn towards the worker with the lead corner of the cutting edge directly on and above the line.

The chisel should receive rapid, light blows and be continually moved toward the workman. The lead corner of the chisel should be guided onto the line while the other corner is doing the cutting. See Figure 38, a rather large sized drawing of the cutting edge of the chisel. When the lines are chased with the chisel, they should be gone over again with quite hard blows of the hammer, forcing the chisel down to make the lines quite pronounced.

To put the handle in place on the plate, it is heated and sprung into the holes of the lugs. The last thing to do in finishing all work of this kind is to heat it to a dark red. All scale and dirt is then scraped off; when cool, some oil is put on. For this kind of work, machine oil is good. The reason it is heated to a dark, even red heat is that when cool the handle and the plate will have the same color and texture.

In Figure 39 are shown some hinges, latches and door knockers. Figure 40 is a drawing of a simple knocker. The plate is cut out and the line around the edge is chased with a tool. The chasing tool is simply a cold chisel ground to a short bevel and rounded somewhat like a fuller, as shown in Figure 41. A short chisel is used for cold work and a longer one for hot work. The chasing can be done while the metal is cold. If it is to be very deep or wide the plate is heated and a longer chisel is used. The lug at Figure 42 is made and riveted into the plate. The top of the hammer is filed to straddle it. A hole is then drilled and a rivet put thru. Holes are drilled around the edge of the plate for screws or nails.

In making the hammer a piece of 3/4 -inch square, soft steel is used. It is upset on one end to get the stock large enough for the bottom of the hammer. The bar is then drawn out on the horn as shown at Figure 43. The top part is formed as shown at Figure 44. Lines are chased on the front of hammer as shown in the drawing; this can be done after it is formed. If the lines are to be very deep it should be done while the piece is straight and heated.

There is ample room for design in the making of door knockers, both for outside and inside doors of dwellings. Knocker plates for doors on the inside of dwellings can be elaborated by a combination of repousse, chasing and perforated decoration which give a variety of light and shadow. Perforated plates can be backed up with colored leather or cloth which gives a very pleasing contrast to the metal.

In Figure 45 is shown an interior door knocker. It is backed up with colored leather. The plates are made of 1/8 -in. thick, soft steel. After the plates are cut out, the openings are marked with a slate pencil and gone over with a short cold chisel to mark them. The plate is then heated, and the part enclosed by the chisel line is cut out. A very narrow chisel, 12 in. long, is used to do the cutting. The cutting is all done from the outside. This gives the edge a slight bevel. The edges of open places are trued up with a file. The openings must not be filed too exact and smooth. The most essential thing to look after is form; the work looks best when it shows handwork and is not mechanical.

Handwork is most in keeping with the design and the material. The lines on the plate are chased with a narrow chisel and the foliated form bumped out from the back by hammering on the end grain of the elm block. The hammer that does the knocking is hinged on the top plate so that the bottom part moves out and in when knocking. Very thin red leather is glued on the back of the plate with fish glue. The diameter of the top plate is 4 1/2 -in., the bottom 2 1/2 -in., and the hammer is 6 3/4 -in. long.

A good method of working out ideas for pieces of this character is to make numerous rough sketches on paper with a lead pencil, making one line over another without erasing. When one gets what he thinks is good it is redrawn and perfected. It may then be worked in the material.

At Figure 46 is shown a door knocker hinged at the top. The plate is one piece. At Figure 47 are shown the dimensions of the plate. After the shape of the plate is sketched on the metal, the lines are traced with a chisel. The open work is then cut out, and the outside of the plate is cut and filed. The center leaf at the top of the plate is indicated by forcing the metal down along the top edge of the leaf with a punch, also at the bottom to form the interlace. The plate should be hot when this is done. The hammer shown in Figure 48 should be forged from 3/4 -in. square, soft steel. The lug shown on the drawing is to be made and riveted into the top of the plate. The hammer is then placed over the lug, and the lug is drilled to conform to the drilled holes in the hammer.

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