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SECTION 3.

THE TRUE DISTANCE OF THE SUN AND STARS.

As it is now demonstrated that the Earth is a plane, the distance of the Sun and Stars may readily be measured by plane trigonometry. The base line in any operation being horizontal and always a carefully measured one, the process becomes exceedingly simple. Let the altitude of the Sun be taken on a given day at 12 o'clock at the high-water mark on the sea shore at Brighton, in Sussex; and at the same hour at the high-water mark of the River Thames, near London Bridge; the difference in the Sun's altitude taken simultaneously from two stations upon the same meridian, and the distance between the stations, or the length of the base line ascertained, are all the elements required for calculating the exact distance of the Sun from London or Brighton; but as this distance is the hypothenuse of a triangle, whose base is the Earth's surface, and vertical side the zenith distance of the Sun, it follows that the distance of the Sun from that part of Earth to which it is vertical is less than the distance from London. In the Diagram, Figure 26, let L B represent the base line from London to Brighton, a distance of 51 statute miles. The altitude at L and at B taken at the same moment of time will give the distance L S or B S. The angle of altitude at L or B, with the length of L S or B S, will then give the vertical distance of the Sun S from E, or the place which is immediately underneath it. This distance will be thus found to be considerably less than 4,000 miles.

The following are the particulars of an observation made, a few years ago, by the officers engaged in the Ordnance survey. Altitude of the Sun at London 55? 13?; altitude taken at the same time, on the grounds of a public school, at Ackworth, in Yorkshire, 53? 2?; the distance between the two places in a direct line, as measured by triangulation, is 151 statute miles. From these elements the true distance of the Sun may be readily computed; and proved to be under 4,000 miles!

Since the above was written, an officer of the Royal Engineers, in the head-quarters of the Ordnance Survey, at Southampton, has furnished the following elements of observations recently made:--

Southern Station, Sun's altitude, 45? Northern ditto, ,, ,, 38? Distance between the two stations, 800 statute miles.

The calculation made from these elements gives the same result, viz., that the actual distance of the Sun from the Earth is less than 4,000 miles.

The same method of measuring distances applies equally to the Stars; and it is easy to demonstrate, beyond the possibility of doubt, so long as assumed premises are excluded, that all the visible objects in the firmament are contained within the distance of 6,000 miles!

SECTION 4.

THE SUN MOVES IN A CIRCLE OVER THE EARTH, CONCENTRIC WITH THE NORTH POLE.

As the Earth has been shown to be fixed, the motion of the Sun is a visible reality; and if it be observed from any northern latitude, and for any period before and after the time of southing, or passing the meridian, it will be seen to describe an arc of a circle; an object moving in an arc cannot return to the centre of such arc without having completed a circle. This the Sun does visibly and daily. To place the matter beyond doubt, the observation of the Arctic navigators may be referred to. Captain Parry, and several of his officers, on ascending high land in the vicinity of the north pole, repeatedly saw, for 24 hours together, the sun describing a circle upon the southern horizon.

SECTION 5.

THE DIAMETER OF THE SUN'S PATH IS CONSTANTLY CHANGING--DIMINISHING FROM DECEMBER 21ST TO JUNE 15TH, AND ENLARGING FROM JUNE TO DECEMBER.

This is a matter of absolute certainty, proved by what is called, in technical language, the northern and southern declination, which is simply saying that the Sun's path is nearest the north pole in summer, and farthest away from it in winter. This difference in position gives rise to the difference of altitude, as observed at various periods of the year, and which is shewn in the following table, given in "The Illustrated London Almanack," for 1848, by Mr. Glaisher, of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.

"Sun's altitude at the time of Southing, or being on the meridian:--

Sun's Time of Southing. altitude. M. S. June 15 62? 0 4 before noon. ,, 30 61?/?? 3 18 afternoon. July 15 59?/?? 5 38 ,, ,, 31 56?/?? 6 4 ,, Aug. 15 52?/?? 0 11 ,, ,, 31 47? 0 5 ,, Sep. 15 38?/?? 4 58 before noon. ,, 30 35?/?? 10 6 ,, Oct. 31 24? 16 14 ,, Nov. 30 17? 10 58 ,, Dec. 21 12? 0 27 ,, ,, 31 15? 3 29 afternoon. Jan. 1 15?/?? 3 36 ,, ,, 15 17? 9 33 ,, ,, 31 21? 13 41 ,, Feb. 15 25? 14 28 ,, ,, 29 30?/?? 12 43 ,, March 15 36? 9 2 ,, 38?/?? 0 0 ,, ,, 21 42?/?? 4 10 before noon. April 15 48? 0 8 ,, ,, 30 53? 2 58 ,, May 15 57? 3 54 ,, ,, 31 60? 2 37 ,,

In the following diagram A A A represent the Sun's daily path on December 21st, and B B B the same on June 15th. N the North Pole, S the Sun, E Great Britain. The figures 1 2 3 the Arctic Circle, and 4 5 6 the extent of sunlight. The arrows show the direction of the Sun's motion.

SECTION 6.

CAUSE OF DAY AND NIGHT, SEASONS, &c.

Captain Basil Hall, R.N., F.R.S.

SECTION 7.

CAUSE OF "SUNRISE" AND "SUNSET."

SECTION 8.

CAUSE OF SUN APPEARING LARGER WHEN RISING AND SETTING THAN WHEN ON THE MERIDIAN.

It is well known that when a light of any kind shines through a dense medium it will appear larger than when seen through a lighter medium. This will be more remarkable when the medium holds aqueous particles in solution,--as in a damp or foggy atmosphere the light of a gas-lamp will seem greater at a given distance than it will under ordinary circumstances. In the diagram, Figure 30, it is evident that H D is less than H 1, H 3, or H 5. The latter represents the greater amount of atmosphere which the Sun has to shine through when approaching the horizon; and as the air near the Earth is both more dense and more damp, or holds more watery particles in solution, the light of the Sun must be dilated or enlarged as well as modified in colour. But the enlarged appearance of the Sun when rising and setting is only an optical impression, as proved by actual measurement. "If the angle of the Sun or Moon be taken either with a tube or micrometer when they appear so large to the eye in the horizon, the measure is identical when they are in the meridian and appear to the eye and mind but half the size. The apparent distance of the horizon is three or four times greater than the zenith. Hence the mental mistake of horizontal size, for the angular dimensions are equal; the first 5? is apparently to the eye equal to 10? or 15? at 50? or 60? of elevation; and the first 15? fill a space to the eye equal to a third of the quadrant. This is evidently owing to the 'habit of sight,' for with an accurate instrument the measure of 5? near the horizon is equal to 5? in the zenith."

"Million of Facts," by Sir Richard Philips, p. 537.

SECTION 9.

CAUSE OF SOLAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSES.

"Astronomy and Astronomical Instruments," p. 105, by Geo. G. Carey.

"McCulloch's Geography," p. 85.

"Illustrated London Almanack for 1864," the astronomical part in which is by James Glaisher, Esq., of the Greenwich Observatory.

"At 3h. 5m. the redness had almost disappeared; a very few minutes afterwards, no trace of it remained, and ere long clouds came on. I watched the Moon, however, occasionally gaining a glimpse of its disc, till a quarter to four o'clock, when, for the last time on that occasion, I saw it faintly appearing through the clouds, nearly a full Moon again; and then I took leave of it, feeling amply repaid for my vigil by the beautiful spectacle which I had seen."

The Hon. Mrs. Ward, Trimleston House, near Dublin, in "Recreative Science," p. 281.

"Philosophical Magazine," No. 220, for August, 1848.

If then, the Sun and Moon have many times been seen above the horizon when the latter was eclipsed, how can it be said that the Earth's shadow was the cause of a lunar eclipse, when the Earth was not between or in a line with the Sun and Moon? And how can the Moon's non-luminous surface be distinctly visible and illuminated during the very totality of an eclipse, if all the light of the Sun is intercepted by the Earth?

The light of the Sun and of the Moon are different in their general appearance--in the colour and action upon the eye.

The Sun's light is drying and preservative, or antiseptic. The Moon's light is damp and putrefactive.

The Sun's rays will put out a common fire; the Moon's light will increase the combustion. The light of the Sun falling upon certain chemical substances, produces a change of colour, as in photographic and other processes. The light of the Moon fails to produce the same effect. Dr. Lardner, at page 121 of his excellent work, "The Museum of Science," says--"The most striking instance of the effect of certain rays of solar light in blackening a light-colored substance, is afforded by chloride of silver, which is a white substance, but which immediately becomes black when acted upon by the rays near the violet extremity of the spectrum. This substance, however, highly susceptible as it is of having its colour affected by light, is, nevertheless, found not to be changed in any sensible degree when exposed to the light of the Moon, even when that light is condensed by the most powerful burning lenses."

"All the Year Round," by Dickens.

Dr. Lardner's Museum of Science, p. 115.

Dr. Noad's Lectures on Chemistry, p. 334.

--SHELLEY.

Referred to in Lardner's "Museum of Science," p. 159.

Sir Richard Phillips, in his "Million of Facts," at page 388, says:--"The precision of astronomy arises, not from theories, but from prolonged observations, and the regularity of the motions, or the ascertained uniformity of their irregularities. Ephemerides of the planets' places, of Eclipses, &c., have been published for above 300 years, and were nearly as precise as at present."

Somerville's Physical Sciences, p. 46.

SECTION 10.

CAUSE OF TIDES.

The doctrine of the Earth's rotundity being fallacious, all ideas of "centre of attraction of gravitation," "mutual attraction of Earth and Moon," &c., &c., must be given up; and the cause of tides in the ocean must be sought for in another direction. It is certain that there is a constant pressure of the atmosphere upon the surface of the Earth and ocean. This is proved by ordinary barometrical observations, many Pneumatic experiments, and by the fact that during the most fearful storms at sea the surface only is disturbed; at the depth of a hundred feet the water is always calm--except in the path of well-marked currents and local submarine phenomena. The following quotations gathered from casual reading fully corroborate this statement. "It is amazing how superficial is the most terrible tempest. Divers assure us that in the greatest storms calm water is found at the depth of 90 feet."

Chambers's Journal, No. 100, p. 379.

"This motion of the surface of the sea is not perceptible to a great depth. In the strongest gale it is supposed not to extend beyond 72 feet below the surface; and at the depth of 90 feet the sea is perfectly still."

Penny Cyclopaedia, Article Sea.

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