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Index 157

FIG. PAGE 1.--Paring Knife 10 2.--Hand Knife 10 3.--Round Knife 11 4.--Head Knife 11 5.--Cutting Gauge 11 6.--Plough or Plough Gauge 12 7.--Side Elevation of Plough Gauge 12 8.--End Elevation of Plough Gauge 13 9.--Slitting Machine 13 10.--Spokeshave 13 11.--Edge Trimmer 14 12.--Washer Cutter 14 13.--Round Punch 15 14.--Oval Punch 15 15.--Buckle Tongue, or Crew, Punch 15 16.--Girth Chape Punch 15 17.--Brace End Punch 15 18.--Forepart of Brace End Punch 16 19.--Hand Punch 16 20.--Hand Punch Nipple 16 21 to 24.--Scalloping Irons 16 25, 26.--Rosette Punches 17 27.--Lead Piece 17 28.--Wooden Mallet 17 29, 30.--Useful Wooden Mallets 17 31.--Saddlers' Hammer 18 32.--Pricking-iron 18 33, 34.--Wheel Prickers 18 35.--Screw-race 19 36.--Single Crease 19 37.--Screw-crease 19 38.--Checker 20 39.--Beveller 20 40.--Compasses 20 41.--Race Compasses 20 42, 43.--Awl Blades 21 44.--Sewing Awl 22 45.--Bent Awl 22 46, 47.--Harness Needles 23 48, 49.--Seat Awls 23 50, 51.--Hand-irons or Palm-irons 24 52.--Clamp or Clams 24 53.--Clamp for Sewing Shaft-tugs 25 54.--Home-made Clamp Holding Work 25 55.--Jaws of Clamp 25 56.--Nail-claw 26 57.--Cutting Pliers 26 58.--Iron Collar Rod 27 59.--Steel Seat-iron 27 60.--Loop-stick 28 61.--Rubber 28 62.--Straining Fork 29 63.--Cutting up Hide 39 64.--Plain Waist Belt 53 65.--Fancy Waist Belt 54 66.--Waist Belt with Pockets 55 67.--Box Creased Loop 58 68.--Box Creased Loop 59 69, 70.--Box Creased Loops 60 71.--Horse in Cart Gear 62 72 to 75.--Scotch Brass Gear Buckles 63 76, 77.--Brass Face-pieces 64 78.--Brass Face-piece 65 79.--Bells and Brush 65 80, 81.--Brass Hame Plates 65 82.--Brass Oval 66 82 to 85.--Brass Octagons 66 86.--Brass Heart 66 87, 88.--Brass Stars 66 89, 90.--Brass Hame Knobs 67 91, 92.--Brass Swing 67 93.--Ear-piece 67 94.--Corner-piece 67 95.--Cart Collar without Side-piece 75 96.--Cart Collar Lining 79 97.--Cart Collar Side-piece 83 98.--Cart Saddle Tree 87 99.--Cart Saddle Panel 89 100.--Cart Saddle Hind Housing 93 101.--Cart Saddle Front Housing 95 102.--Set of Leader Gear 103 103, 104.--Hip-strap Chains 105 105.--Plough Back-band Hook 109 106 to 108.--Pelham Bits 111 109.--Hackney Bit 111 110.--Bridoon 111 111, 112.--Ladies' Horse Bits 112 113.--Pelham Snaffle with Indiarubber Mouth 112 114.--Hackney Bit with Indiarubber Mouth 112 115.--Gig Snaffle 113 116.--Wilson Snaffle 113 117.--Liverpool Bit 113 118.--Globe Check Curb Bit 113 119.--One-horn Bridoon Bit 113 120.--One-horned Bridoon with Indiarubber Mouth 114 121.--Gig Curb Bit 114 122.--Buxton Bit 114 123.--Swivelled Bridoon Bit 114 124, 125.--Breaking Bits 114 126.--Breaking Bit 115 127.--Snaffle with Indiarubber Mouth 115 128, 129.--Exercising Bits 115 130.--Show or Stallion Bit 115 131.--Double-mouthed Snaffle 116 132.--Ordinary Spur 116 133.--Officer's Regulation Spur 116 134.--Dress Spur 116 135.--Lady's Spur 117 136.--Trousers Spur 117 137.--Solid Stirrup 117 138.--Open Button Stirrup 117 139.--Waving Bar Stirrup 117 140.--Lady's Stirrup 117 141.--Stirrup Slipper 118 142.--Safety Stirrup 118 143.--Flat Side Wire Front Buckle 118 144.--Front Bevelled Buckle 118 145.--Bevelled Flat Top Buckle 118 146.--West End Bevelled Flat Top Buckle 118 147.--Spade Buckle 119 148.--Square Wire Buckle 119 149.--Chatham Buckle 119 150.--Flat Top Turned-up Buckle 119 151.--Fluted Buckle 119 152.--Swelled Front Bent-leg Buckle 119 153.--Flat Top Cab Buckle 119 154.--West End Whole Buckle 119 155.--Chased Buckle 120 156.--Melbourne Buckle 120 157.--Square Buckle 120 158, 159.--Covered Buckles 120 160, 161.--Part-covered Buckles 120 162.--Shaft Tug Buckle 121 163.--Burgess's Buckle 121 164.--Ball Terret 121 165.--Plain Terret 121 166 to 168.--Ball Terrets 122 169 to 172.--Hames 123 173, 174.--Bearing-rein Swivels 123 175, 176.--Roller Buckles 124 177.--Hame Clip 125 178, 179.--Breeching Dees 125 180, 181.--Winkers 129 182.--Van Saddle 131 183.--Van Saddle Flap 131 184.--Van Saddle Panel 131 185.--Chain and Leather Gig Front 140 186.--Chain and Leather Gig Front 141 187.--Chain and Leather Gig Front 143 188.--Crupper Dock 147 189.--Breeching, etc. 147 190.--Back-band 147 191.--Shaft Tugs 147 192.--Four-wheeled Cab Saddle 153 193.--Cab Saddle Tree 153 194.--Hansom Cab Saddle 154 195, 196.--Rein Stops 154 197.--Hansom Cab Harness 155

HARNESS MAKING.

HARNESS-MAKERS' TOOLS.

Harness making and repairing is a branch of leather work that can often be undertaken profitably by many persons, and the information given in the following pages has been adapted specially to the amateur's requirements. Doubtless the readers of a companion handbook on "Boot Making and Mending" have wished to pursue further the subject of leather working, and will take up the making and repairing of harness with pleasure. Aspirants to more highly skilled work will find "Practical Saddlery" of the greatest possible use to them, whilst readers less ambitious may look to "Leather Working" for instructions on making a number of articles, such as bags, portmanteaus, and cases, for which there is general employment and a consequently great demand. The two books just mentioned are issued uniform in style and price with the present work.

In this handbook it is proposed to treat the subject of harness making so fully that anyone possessing tact and sense can make a set of harness from the instructions given, or, at any rate, keep harness in good repair. A start will be made by describing the tools that will be necessary. In the list given below, every essential tool is specified and its uses explained. The tools are very numerous, but the amateur may dispense with many of them; for though all of them may have to be employed by a tradesman in turning out finished work, an amateur may be content with a much smaller outfit. The tools are not bulky, however, and all that are necessary for making a double set of harness could be carried in a small handbag, excepting, of course, the mallet and collar-iron.

The tools are here classified as cutting tools, punches and tools of percussion, tools for setting out, marking, and ornamenting, awls and needles for perforating, tools for gripping and holding work, tools used in stuffing collars and saddles, and miscellaneous. It may be remarked that saddlers' tools, as well as harness-makers', are included in this chapter.

With regard to cutting tools, a paring knife and a hand knife are used for cutting thread, paring down, and splicing, and are otherwise generally useful. The round knife is used by saddlers instead of the hand knife for cutting, splicing, and thinning leather; they can be had in different sizes, suited to light and heavy work; their chief use is in thinning the edges of leather, and for giving a rounded appearance to lined straps, such as nosebands, traces, breeching straps, etc. The head knife is used for cutting the holes for buckle tongues and cutting any circular shapes or holes in leather.

Fig. 5 is a cutting gauge made in iron or wood. A knife passes through the ruled stem, and is held firmly by a screw. It is adjusted by shifting the block, which is also held by a screw.

The slitting machine is useful for thinning straps which are to be drawn down to half or one-third their thickness. A saddler's spokeshave may be used for the same purpose as the slitting machine. It is suitable for thinning light straps, and not only takes less time to adjust, but does the work more quickly than the slitter. The chief use of the spokeshave, however, is to trim and finish traces, backbands, etc. After a trace or backband or other lined strap is stitched, the uneven edges require to be rounded and smoothed; this is done by clamping the strap between the knees, holding the clamp a little straighter than when stitching, and using the spokeshave.

Edge trimmers are for running along the edges of straps of all kinds to take off the sharp edge and sides before dyeing. It is made in sizes 1 to 8. Sharp and strong scissors are necessary for cutting linings, basil, and other kinds of thin leather. The washer cutter is used for cutting round pieces of leather by rule; the knife can be set at all sizes up to 6 in.

Punches are indispensable, and half a dozen different sizes each of round and oval tools should be obtained. Round punches are made in sizes from No. 1, suitable only for very narrow straps, to No. 16, which make a hole 5/8 in. in diameter. Oval punches are numbered, according to size, from 17 to 32, and make a hole of similar dimensions to the round punches just mentioned. Punches of intermediate sizes, Nos. 3 to 13 or Nos. 19 to 29, will, however, answer for most repairing jobs. The ovals are preferable in most cases, as they make holes in the straps large enough for the purpose without impairing the strength so much as the round ones do. Buckle tongue punches, or crew punches are handy; these are made in three or four sizes, and they run from No. 33 to No. 43, and are used for making the holes that take the heel of the buckle tongue when the buckle is placed in its chape. This hole may also be made by punching two holes at a suitable distance from each other, and cutting between them, thus The strap has to be bent and a hole cut through the bent end, the piece between the holes for the tongue of the buckle being afterwards cut out. The punches shown by Figs. 16 to 18 may be used to cut saddle girth chapes, brace ends, etc.

A hand punch is useful for punching holes in small straps, or for making holes in harness whilst it is worn by a horse. Saddlers are sometimes called upon to do this, and without a hand punch the work is awkward, necessitating the use of mallet, punch, and lead. Fig. 20 shows a loose nipple which can be obtained in various sizes to screw in the handle.

Scalloping irons , vandyke, round, straight, and half-moon are used for cutting any fancy or ornamental designs in American cloth or fancy leather. Rosette punches in sets of three or four, are useful for making rosettes in patent fancy coloured leather or for cutting out round scalloped edge pieces.

A lead piece for punching on should be from 6 in. to 8 in. square, and about 1 1/2 in. thick. Lead is used because, being soft, it does not damage the points of the punches; but if lead is not handy, a block of wood 5 in. or 6 in. thick will do, if set up on end so that the punch does not cut across the grain.

A wooden mallet for punching is also required, and a lignum-vitae round mallet to work the forewales and shape the stuffed bodies of collars. Other useful mallets are shown by Figs. 29 and 30. Two hammers are necessary, one fairly light--the proper saddler's hammer --and the other a heavy one for heavy work.

Tools for marking and ornamenting leather may now be mentioned. Fig. 32 shows a tool used in stamping the lines preparatory to stitching. These tools vary in width from three teeth, which are used only for round points and scalloped work, to twenty-four teeth for straight lines. The teeth on each iron are cut to mark a certain number of stitches per inch, from six to sixteen, and these teeth are not at right angles to the flat part of the iron, but are cut on the slant as at B, thus making an impression on the leather which acts as a guide in forming a stitch perfect in shape as well as in length.

Wheel prickers are used in sizes from seven or eight to sixteen teeth to the inch. They are round pieces of steel, having serrated edges and a hole in the centre, and are provided with a handle in which they are adjusted with a pin and nut. A change of stitch, say from fine to coarse, necessitates a change of wheel. The wheel is run along the stitching line, and in the holes made by the pricks the stitches are run.

The screw-race is a tool for grooving lines in any part where it is desired to sink the stitches below the surface. It is easily adjustable.

Single creases are for marking in places where neither the screw-crease nor the compasses can go, as for instance, in the centre of a large piece of leather or wide strap. They are also used to mark thick and heavy loops, for which purpose they are heated before using.

Checkers are small double creases with two parallel edges, one of which marks the small ornamental checked lines on loops; one edge is run along the last line done, which thus serves as a guide for keeping the lines parallel. Sizes 1, 2, and 3 will be sufficient. A brass foot-rule, of course, must be obtained.

Bevellers resemble the single creases, but are much thicker and bevelled; they are used for the sole purpose of creasing or marking loops on portions that require ornamenting. In use, they are heated and then made to form a deep, wide groove on the loop, such as the straight cross lines on the front, and any fancy shapes worked on the outside of the loop.

Compasses should have a screw and regulator so that they may be set at different widths. They are used for marking the widths of straps to be cut and for marking distances, etc.

Race compasses are for the purpose of cutting a slight groove or line along the edges; they just take off a narrow strip of the grain and leave a faint line, which is blacked with the edges. It answers the same purpose as the line cut with the screw-crease, either ornamenting the straps or marking the line for the stitches.

With regard to perforating tools, a few awl blades and hafts may be obtained. Stitching blades vary in sizes from 1 1/4 in. to 3 in. long. Hold the blade fast in the vice, and with a few sharp blows of a light hammer drive the haft or handle on the awl, which is then ready for use. Fig. 44 shows a sewing awl. Strong thick awls will be required for coarse work, to stitch, say, a thread of seven, eight, or even more cords of hemp in one thread, and the thickness of the awl should diminish until the fine awl for stitching fine silk and cotton threads is obtained. Bent awls in one or two sizes, such as shoemakers use, are employed for putting in wire in saddle flabs for fastening the panel; they have other uses also.

Half a dozen packets of harness needles , varying in size from No. 2 to No. 6, will be necessary; the lowest number is the coarsest. These needles are for wax thread and all other stitching threads. Needles will also be required as follows:--2-in. or 3-in. needles for quilting saddle panels, etc.; pointed needles for thimble work in stitching linings to saddle panels, etc.; collar needles of different sizes, half-moon shape and straight with bent points; these are from 3 in. to 6 in. long, the longest being for heavy cart collar work and the lightest for patent and light harness collars.

The seat-awl is for easing and levelling stuffing in collars, saddles, and other stuffed or padded articles. It is also useful for levelling thread; this is turned once around the round awl, which is then drawn sharply backwards and forwards, the lumps thus being taken out of the thread.

The hand-or palm-iron is a kind of thimble used on the palm of the hand when driving collar needles through leather. A shallow honeycombed well is formed in the hand part, which prevents the needle from slipping, however great the pressure may be; and at the end or point a hole is bored lengthwise, about 1/8 in. deep, to take the eve end of the needle and force it closer to the leather when the broad part of the iron is not available.

Holding and gripping tools include the clamp, known also as the pair of clams. Fig. 52 shows the ordinary type, while Fig. 53 is the kind used in sewing shaft-tugs. Held between the knees in a slightly slanting position, the clamp keeps the work firmly in position while the stitching is being done; it lies against the left knee, and by throwing the right leg over it the work is held fast between the gripping points. Note that the saddler has the clamp between his legs in a slanting direction, and not as the shoemaker, who has them straight up, almost against his nose, when bending over the work. One reason for this is that the work done by the saddler with the clamp requires more force to press the awl through than the work done by the shoemaker; consequently the saddler must set his clamp against some firm object so that it will not yield under the pressure. Another reason is that the saddler stitches with needles, while the shoemaker uses bristles, and must see the hole made by the awl, as the bristles cannot force their way, as the needles, to some slight extent, are able to do. The saddler feels for the hole with his needle and thus becomes accustomed to finding the hole without looking, and to getting his needle to follow the awl as the latter is drawn back; in fact, the needle is inserted in the unseen lower side with more accuracy than on the top side, which is in view.

A clamp can be made easily by the worker at home. The parts A and B are made from two oak cask or barrel staves. The lower portion C may be a sound piece of white deal, 20 in. by 3 in. by 3 in., and the only other requisites will be eight stout 2 1/4 in. screws. The staves should be cut 2 ft. long by at least 3 in. wide, the points of greatest convexity being in the centre; the more bent the staves are the more useful the clamp will be. Clean up the outside with a spokeshave, leaving one end the full thickness of the staves, or about 1 in., and thinning off gradually to about 3/4 in. towards the upper ends, which are to form the jaws of the clamp . Round off the outer corners, and clean up the inside surface flat, smoothing both sides with glass-paper. The dovetail-shaped tenon in the lower part C, should be at least 6 in. in length, and will require careful cutting, the depth of the shoulders and the width of the upper end depending upon the amount of curve in the staves which are to be attached to it. It should be borne in mind that the object is to embed the staves so firmly that their upper ends, or the jaws of the tool, press tightly together. With this object the tenon should be cut, so that energetic screwing will be required to bring the staves home into their final position. The screws should be countersunk flush with the surface of the staves.

A small wrench and a medium-sized vice will often be found useful. A nail-claw is required for pulling out the nails used to keep the work together. Pincers, nippers, and cutting pliers will be found useful as occasion demands.

A steel seat-iron is used in putting flock into cart-saddle panels, but chiefly for stuffing the peak of riding saddles, as the tool bends nicely with the shape of the saddle without tearing the cover or stretching it immoderately.

Loop-sticks are made of hardwood in various sizes to suit the width and thickness of the straps. A set made of hard boxwood or iron, varying in width from 1/2 in. to 2 in., and in thickness from 1/8 in. to 1/2 in., should be obtained. Less room is wanted in shaping a loop for a single strap than when a strap of two or three thicknesses is required to go through a loop. A loop stick must be obtained that is thick enough and wide enough for a trace 1 3/4 in. wide and proportionately thick; there must also be one sufficiently thin and narrow for a 1/2 -in. strap; loop sticks for intermediate sizes are also necessary, and it is as well to get two each of some of the sizes. For instance, those things that are done in pairs, such as bridle-cheeks, shaft-tugs, etc., will require the use of two loop sticks of the same size. Good loop sticks are essential to turning out good work.

The straining fork is sometimes employed for stretching wet webbing or leather, one end of which is nailed down and the other end strained with the fork and secured until dry.

A coarse file or rasp may be necessary to file down wooden and cane driving whip-stocks, etc., when putting on thongs and in splicing whip-sticks to level the splice so that both of the parts may lie flat against each other. A small round file and a small square one, as well as two or three coarser ones, are sure to come in handy. Amongst their uses will be the filing down of the brass or ironwork of saddles, and the making of holes in saddle trees, etc.

HARNESS-MAKERS' MATERIALS.

It is now proposed to give some particulars of the materials used in saddle and harness making.

Beeswax, as already hinted, is used to make threads for work that is light as regards both colour and substance. Single linen threads of all colours are, before using, rubbed with beeswax, which does not deaden the colour. White wax is sometimes made for brown harness by melting together white-lead and white wax; instead of the latter, the wax from best white wax candles may be used. If the wax when cold is too soft, add more white wax; if too hard, add a little more white-lead.

Black cobbler's wax is made by melting together 1/2 lb. each of resin and pitch. When thoroughly mixed, remove the pan from the fire, and add one pennyworth of boiled linseed oil, or less, according to the weather. Thoroughly mix this with the other ingredients and then pour a little into cold water to test it. Let it remain for a minute and then remove it from the water, taking care to well wet the hands in doing so, or in the subsequent working it will stick to them. If it cracks when working it in the hands, it is too hard; if it pulls out properly and sticks well together, it is all right. Put it back into the water, and pour in the rest of the stuff after it. It is important that the piece tested be not put back into the pan containing the rest of the wax, as the water absorbed will evaporate and make the hot wax frothy and spongy. Gather the wax together in the water without loss of time, remove it with wet hands, and pull it fast hand over hand as quickly as possible till it attains a light golden colour. Pull off a small piece with the hands, or cut it off with wet scissors, and throw it into the water. If it floats on the surface it has been pulled enough; if it sinks, the wax requires more working. If not pulled enough, the wax is brittle, becoming tougher and better the more it is pulled. In making the wax it must be remembered that only half as much oil is required in summer as in winter. The colder the atmosphere the more oil will be required.

The quantities of ingredients mentioned will make about thirty handy lumps of wax, and as a rule a pennyworth of oil is enough in the coldest weather. If, after working it, the wax is too hard, melt it again and add more oil; if too soft, add more pitch and resin. Hard wax may be used in a way that avoids re-melting. The thread, previous to being dressed with the wax, is rubbed with tallow, over which the wax will run smooth. Cut the wax into lumps the size of a large pigeon's egg and keep it in water.

Directions will now be given for making wax threads. So that the hemp may be kept tidy and not mixed up with the tools on the bench, place the ball of hemp in a wooden or tin box having a small hole in the centre of its lid, through which the hemp can pass. Take hold of the end of the hemp with the left hand, twist it once around the fingers, and draw it through the right hand. When a sufficient quantity has been drawn out, break the thread by rubbing it on the knee to take out the twist, at the same time giving it a sharp pull; the strands thus loosen and break in a ragged end. Throw the hemp over a nail or hook in the bench, pull it until the sides are each about 2 ft. 9 in. long, keep the hemp tight with the end in the left hand, and with the right hand spin or rub it on the knee as before to untwist the strands; then pull it sharply to break it. The more ragged the broken end is the better will be the point on the finished thread. There is now one strand 2 ft. 9 in. long and pointed; with the right hand put the points together in the left hand, and draw the hemp again over the hook, spinning and cutting it as before, and repeating the operation till the required number of strands is obtained. The number varies with the required strength, from three to sixteen.

In putting the ends of the cut hemp together, do not leave them exactly the same length; by leaving some shorter than others a nice pointed thread is obtained at the finish, fine enough to go into the eye of a needle. When the required number of strands is obtained, take a ball of wax in the right hand, and hold both ends of the thread separately in the left; draw the wax over the points two or three times to keep the ends together, taking care to keep the ends on the left of the hook twisted round the left hand, and holding them tight with the third and fourth fingers, leaving the thumb and forefinger loose to manipulate the other end in the process of twisting; the wax on the ends or points is a great help at this stage. Having an end between the thumb and finger of the left hand, set it on the knee, and spin or twist it as when cutting the hemp. The knee should be raised about 12 in. from the floor by placing the foot on a support. Continue spinning with the palm of the right hand until the thread is twisted enough. If twisted too much, it will work into knots when used in stitching. Then put the twisted side round the left hand, kept firm by the third and fourth fingers as before; and take the other side between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and spin it to the proper twist with the palm of the right hand as the other side was done. If the thread is required very smooth, twist both of the sides of the thread once round the seat-awl and draw the latter sharply backwards and forwards along the thread, all unevenness being thus smoothed away. For coarse work and repairs this is not necessary, but for best and new work the thread should always be smoothed.

To wax the thread, hold the two ends of the thread firmly in the left hand, and with the ball of wax held in the palm of the right hand, rub all along the thread, pulling the thread from around the hook into the open to enable that portion to be waxed also. Pull back the thread into its former position, and, with a piece of soft leather or the bare hand, rub the thread sharply from end to end to smooth the wax and make it even all along. The thread is then ready for use.

Yellow or white hemp thread is made with either beeswax or white wax in exactly the same manner, but the point of the thread is not dressed with white wax, being left unwaxed until the rest of the thread is finished. The end has to be pointed with black wax, which will not stick over beeswax or white wax. Black wax is the only kind that will keep the thread fast to the needles.

Nails are extensively used both in putting materials together for working and as ornaments. The nails used in putting work together are generally cut tacks, ranging in length from 5/8 in. to 1 in. Neat wire nails can now be had, however, much cheaper than the tacks, and are to be preferred, as they are of uniform size and leave a much smaller hole when withdrawn. Clumsy nails spoil good work, as the holes made by them are larger than the awl used in stitching. Very fine nails do not spoil the work, and can be obtained in sizes suitable for heavier and clumsier work; and they may be used over and over again if care is taken in pulling them out with the nail-claw. Cut tacks are used in putting gig saddles together, in nailing the leather to the tree, in adjusting panels in the gullet and behind, between the two prongs of the crupper staples, for nailing seats in riding saddles, etc. Cut tacks can be obtained as small as 3/8 in. in length.

Saddlers' tacks of different sizes from 1/2 in. to 3/4 in. long are used in putting in cart-saddle and riding-saddle panels and flaps, and for many other purposes. Clout nails are used now and then in putting houses on cart saddles, and for nailing on straps and girths, etc. Clout nails and saddlers' tacks are made of wrought iron. Round-headed and japanned nails may be used for nailing cart-saddle housings, and have a neater appearance than common iron clouts. Tough nails are used in making all kinds of saddles; they sometimes have heads covered with black patent leather, and sometimes japanned heads only. Others have heads of silver, nickel, or brass. They are used partly as ornaments and partly to hold the work together, and are in two sizes, cab and gig. There are usually four in a gig or cab saddle, one in each corner of the skirt in front and one on each side behind, holding down the binding that comes over the cantle of the saddle. The front ones are driven through, bent, and beaten close to the tree backwards, whilst the hind ones are cut to taper for about half their lengths to a point; they are driven into the tree.

In a riding saddle there is one nail in the front, one in each of the sides, one in the corner of the skirts driven through and bent, and one on each side just at the thin end of the skirt, driven inwards so as to catch the tree and be flattened close to it. There is also one in each flap under the skirt in a line with the stirrup fastener, driven through the tree on the outside of the plate running along the points from the gullet; these are bent and flattened underneath. Sometimes brass nails are used as ornaments, but brass beading has done away with their use to a great extent. Formerly country cart saddles were ornamented by nailing the housing to the tree with brass nails; the covers of van saddles, as well as the opening over the boards, were also fastened down with these nails.

Such pieces as loop leather, the edges of black straps, etc., often have to be dyed. The dye or stain is made by boiling together for half an hour 1 lb. logwood chips, 4 oz. crushed nutgalls, 1/2 lb. copperas, a little gum arabic, and 5 qt. of water. Keep a little in an old bottle hung in a handy position near the bench. The dye is applied by a stick having a piece of felt attached to its end. The ink can be thinned by the addition of water. In dyeing brown leather, it must first be coated with soda solution to kill the grease. The solution is made by dissolving a piece of washing soda the size of a pigeon's egg in a quart of hot water. The black dye may then be applied. If it does not strike well, rub over it a coarse brush and again coat with dye. Rub it well and dry with a rag, afterwards well rubbing in a little tallow with either a rag or the bare hand. The tallow gives a finish and counteracts any injury the dye might do the hand, there being in the copperas a tendency to burn.

Flocks, both white and coloured, are extensively used in the trade, and can be bought at from 20s. to 50s. per hundredweight; the material can also be had in small quantities--even as low as a pound. Best white flock should be free from cotton, and should be tested by putting a small quantity in a candle flame; if cotton is present, it burns fiercely and with a big flame, but fine wool burns slowly and smoulders. The best flock is used for stuffing riding-saddle panels, etc., and the best drummed flock is used for collars, being put near the horse's breast under the lining to make the collars easy for the shoulder.

The drummed flocks are in large sheets, and these are cut to the size and shape required, and, being of even thickness, will not be lumpy, an important consideration in making a collar. Coarser flock of a white, brown, or any dark colour will do for stuffing and restuffing gig-saddle panels. Curled horsehair is sometimes used for stuffing panels, and is found very cool for an animal with a tender back or shoulder; goat hair is very suitable for stuffing. Neither this nor horsehair is so liable to be clogged by sweating as sheep's wool, though the latter, when dry, containing but very little oil and being well carded, is used extensively in country places.

All these materials before use should be put through the flock machine once or twice to loosen the fibre, and care should be taken when stuffing with a rod that the flock or wool is not put in lumpy or uneven. After stuffing, the work should be levelled with the seat-awl until it is as smooth as a board. The drummed flock, of course, is already level and even; it is not stuffed in, but laid on the inside of the collar lining before stuffing the collar with straw.

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