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All these materials before use should be put through the flock machine once or twice to loosen the fibre, and care should be taken when stuffing with a rod that the flock or wool is not put in lumpy or uneven. After stuffing, the work should be levelled with the seat-awl until it is as smooth as a board. The drummed flock, of course, is already level and even; it is not stuffed in, but laid on the inside of the collar lining before stuffing the collar with straw.

Thick felt is a good substitute for pads to ease collars and saddles, and can be bought in various thicknesses by the pound. Large cuttings and waste pieces can also be bought very cheaply, and two thicknesses can be put together if necessary, a strap and a buckle being on one side with a strap on the other to fasten to a saddle or collar. Felt is useful to put under cruppers and to line breechings when chafing, or under any strappings that chafe the horse's skin. They can be fastened to the above by stitching them with a spot stitch, thus - - - - -, about 3/4 in. apart, and slanting the awl underneath to make the stitch small there as well as on the top; or nails may be used when the felt is sufficiently thick. False collars, pads to be used like saddle cloths under gig or cab saddles and under cart-saddle panels, riding-saddle cloths, and many other articles are made of felt.

The harness maker and saddler uses many different kinds of leather, and, unless the worker possesses some knowledge of the particular purpose of each variety, much waste is likely to result. Stuff too light or too heavy, too thick or too thin, spoils a job, and of course entails loss.

In Fig. 63, which is a diagram showing a cut hide, A A show the sides of a harness hide with belly on; C C, backs of harness hide with belly off; B B B B, bellies of hide; D D, middlings; E, shoulder; and F, uncut middling.

Harness leather can be bought in hides cut only along the back, having the belly part attached, at the rate of from 1s. 2d. to 1s. 11d. per lb. The best part can be used for harness and cart gear; the belly will come in well for repairs, linings, and fillings. Harness backs are half hides from which the belly has been cut off; these have all pure firm leather suitable for making all kinds of harness. The price is from 1s. 9d. to 2s. 5d. per pound.

Trace backs resemble the above, but are picked and more carefully dressed, and are made of the finest and best grown hides. They cost from 1s. l0d. to 2s. 7d. per pound.

Rein hides have the bellies attached but are dressed and of picked quality and thickness and uniform strength; they are suitable for making into driving reins. For the best part can also be made any good light single straps, where strength and durability are required. The best part of the belly can be cut up into small straps of any kind and into linings. These hides cost from 56s. to 72s. each. Rein backs resemble the above, but have the belly cut off; the price is from 40s. to 70s. each.

Black strap butts are the best part of the hide from which the belly and shoulder have been cut. They are from 4 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 9 in. long, and are suitable for any kind of good single strap. The price is from 56s. to 72s. a pair.

Black spur shoulders are light shoulders dressed and flattened; from them are made spur and similar straps, garters, wrist straps, etc. The price is from 8s. 6d. to 10s. each. Japanned horse hides for patent harness collars cost from 40s. to 46s. each. Cow hides, japanned for the same purpose, cost from 38s. to 44s. each. Japanned cow-backs for collars, etc., cost from 30s. to 39s. per pair. Japanned flap hides for making gig, cab, or brougham harness saddle flaps are priced at from 2s. 3d. to 2s. 6d. per pound. The middlings cost from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per pound.

Winker hides, japanned for making bridle winkers, cost 54s. to 56s. each, and the middlings for the same purpose cost from 32s. to 36s. per pair. Japanned welting seals for making welts for gig saddles, etc., are priced at from 7s. 6d. to 8s. 6d. each. Japanned and enamelled hides for making military belts, etc., cost from 54s. to 60s. each, and middlings for the same purpose from 40s. to 42s. per pair.

There is great variety in brown or stained leather. Bridle hides for all sorts of riding bridles cost from 50s. to 56s. each. Backs from the above cost 45s. to 50s. each, whilst the butts cost 32s. to 40s.; these are in varying qualities and prices.

Brown shoulders dressed for coat straps, garters, braces, or small straps in general can be bought at from 6s. 6d. to 10s. each, and driving-rein brown hides at from 56s. to 72s. each. The backs cost from 56s. to 66s. a pair, and the butts for handparts of reins 38s. to 42s. a pair.

Double-rein hides--that is, brown leather specially selected and dressed for making reins of double thickness stitched together, cost from 44s. to 50s. each. The backs cost from 40s. to 48s. per pair. Head-collar rein backs for making head-collars, stallion bridles, etc., can be bought at from 2s. 6d. to 2s. 11d. per pound.

Stirrup hides for making stirrup straps cost from 2s. 6d. to 2s. 9d. per pound; there are also inferior qualities. Butts for stirrup straps cost from 3s. 6d. to 4s. per pound. Brown harness hides cost from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 11d. per pound. The backs cost from 1s. 8d. to 2s. 2d. per pound. Skirt hides for making ladies' and gents' saddle skirts and flaps are priced at from 1s. 10d. to 2s. 2d. per pound. Skirt backs are from 2s. to 2s. 4d. per pound, and shoulders, 1s. 5d. to 1s. 10d. per pound.

Hog-skins suitable for all purposes, but chiefly used for saddles, can be bought at from ?9 to ?12 per dozen; they can be bought singly, and there are also inferior qualities.

Sheep-skins in imitation of hog-skins can be bought at from 30s. to 60s. per dozen, or copper plates for printing basils and a printing press for the purpose can be bought instead. Basils for gig-saddle panel pads and repairing collars, and cart-saddle cheek pads, etc., can be bought at from 10s. to 30s. per dozen. The common ones are good enough for repairs and cheap work.

Specially dressed hides for making braces or any light straps can be bought at from 36s. to 40s. each; the shoulders or bellies dressed for the same purpose can be had apart from the hide. Purse and pocket-book hides are also specially dressed, and cost from 30s. to 40s. each. Calf-skins dressed for the same purpose cost from 9s. to 10s. 6d. each. The brace and pocket-book and purse leather can be obtained stained in various colours, red, brown, yellow, orange, etc. The brown harness leather also can be had natural or tallow colour or stained fawn, nut brown, yellow, or orange. Brown gear hides for cart work are from 1s. 3d. to 2s. per pound, the backs from 1s. 7d. to 2s. 3d. per pound, and bellies from 10d. to 1s. 4d. per pound.

Mill bands for making driving belts cost from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 2d. per pound. Engine butts for making strong engine belts, either single or double, cost from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per pound.

Fancy coloured leather for bridle fronts and rosettes cost from 40s. to 42s. each middling. Striped patent frontings leather costs from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 9d. per square foot. White buff hides for hunting-crop keepers, razor strops, belts, etc., cost about 5s. per pound. White bleached buff middling is about 5s. per pound.

A country saddler is often called upon to work in coach-builders' leather; leathers for this purpose are not included in the above list, but, as a rule, they can be obtained at the same place as harness leather.

Enamelled cow, ox, and bull hides for carriage tops, etc., are sold whole, and not slit along the middle, at from 40s. to 70s. each. Coach hides and backs for dashes and wings cost from 26s. to 40s. each. Seal-skins for the same purpose cost from 7s. 6d. to 12s. each. Hides for window straps, enamelled and prepared, cost from 56s. to 60s. each. All coloured carriage cushion hides for making carriage cushions cost from 40s. to 60s. each. Dyed and enamelled leather for cushions is sold by the square foot.

It is scarcely necessary to state that all the above prices fluctuate with the market. A great quantity of harness leather, nowadays, is prepared by the quick tanning process, but it is inferior stuff. The best leather is that which has been through a pure oak tan. It is very hard, however, to tell when the inferior process has been used, but as a rule the colour, smell, and even taste of the leather decide the question; soft, mellow leather that has not a hard feeling to the touch is as a rule good leather, especially if it has a close grain and a light yellow colour when cut. The inferior quality feels and looks dry and hard: it has a dull grey colour and an uneven grain facing. A good test is to bend it, poor and badly dressed leather cracking in the bend, and the grain giving way; these defects show that either chemicals or excessive heats have been used in the finishing and tanning. Well tanned and dressed leather stands the bending test well.

A few rules on cutting up hides may now be given. When cutting a strap from a hide, do not cut down lower than the width of the strap required, so as not to interfere with the next cut into the hide. All possible care should be taken to prevent waste, and pieces of particular shape should be cut from a pattern. It is sheer waste to cut off a piece of stuff larger than is required and then to trim it down. In cutting up a hide, lay it on the bench with the back part against the worker; use a straightedge at least 8 ft. long, and mark with a blunt-pointed awl or the seat-awl, using the straightedge as a guide. Take care not to cut the grain of the leather with the point of the awl, as in the case of the straightedge being shifted an indelible mark may be left.

If the strap is to be cut with the round knife, set the compass to the right width, and put one point in position to run along the edge of the leather, and the other on the leather so that it marks the width to be cut; pull the compass towards the worker, pressing it so that it leaves a plain line. With the round knife begin cutting at the right-hand end, keeping the leather steady in its place on the cutting-board with the left hand. A cutting-board ought always to be employed, as nails on the top of the bench would interfere with the work. Push the knife along the marked line steadily, taking care that the knife does not slip; if it does, it may make a bad slit and spoil the work. Straps are always cut along the hide and not across it, the hide being much stronger lengthways.

The first cutting from the hide is suitable for reins, and then in order come traces, back-bands, bridging-straps, hip-straps, and hip-strap tugs; then crupper billet, shaft tugs, name tugs, bellyband, bridle head-strap, cheeks, etc.; and from the belly part or third quality in side of hide may be cut linings and layers for folds. In making cart harness, cut bridge-band, crupper, and bridge-band carrier or hip-straps and bearers, and then cart-saddle bellybands and bridle; the best part of the belly, with the top well lined, will do for side pieces of collar, unless this can be cut from a specially dressed piece.

Specially curried leather must be obtained for cart-saddle housings and winkers, as the harness leather is not firm enough and contains too much oil. The special leather also must be got for the saddle flaps, the pieces lying against the ribs of the horse under the ridgworth.

A leather that is cheapest in first cost is not always the cheapest to use. That leather is the best from which the greatest weight of firm straps can be made, and which will continue firm for the greatest length down towards the belly part.

The compass and round knife only were mentioned in the description of cutting straps, but the plough is very useful for cutting straps varying from 1/2 in. to 5 1/2 in. in width. The plough does away with the use of both compass and round knife, and cuts much more evenly and straight than it is possible to do by hand. Its use effects a great saving of time, the knife merely requiring to be adjusted on the gauge and made fast by the thumb-screw. Hold the leather firm and flat on the board with the left hand, and press it forward to the plough, keeping the guard close and tight to the edge all along. The uses of the head knife in cutting will be fully explained later.

Brown harness work, as small straps, traces, back-band, and breechings, may be finished with a thin solution of gum and water, and should be well rubbed with a smooth bone until polished. Machines for trimming the edges are made, but their work is incomplete, because all lengthy straps have parts in which the fibres are less close than at others. A good method is to knock the edges all along, consolidate them as much as possible, and then trim them round and level with the spokeshave; afterwards run a glass scraper over them and sandpaper. Finally, a good rubbing with brown paper and bone, after gumming, will give a fine polished edge to all brown work.

Black straps and harness are prepared in the same way for polishing; black dye them, then rub dry with a rag, and polish with brown paper and bone. Sometimes, after blacking and rubbing, a coat of liquid blacking is applied, and rubbed until dry. Again, some harness-makers employ black-ball and a burnisher to finish after blacking, rubbing down well; this is recommended for the best harness. It should be understood that whenever the word finishing used here in connection with best harness this process is referred to for black and brown harness and single straps.

Common harness and cart gear, especially in country places, are usually finished by levelling the edges, scraping with glass, blacking, rubbing with a rag, and finally, after passing a ball of hard tallow along the edges, rubbing with a bone or hard knife handle.

Webs are used for a variety of purposes by saddlers. Girth web for making saddle girths is sold in 15-yd. pieces. It can be had in cotton, union, or worsted. Race girth is a superior material for racing saddles; it is about 5 in. wide. Web for roller girth is from 4 in. to 6 in. wide and in 12 1/2 -yd. pieces; it is of cotton, union, or worsted. In the same material is made trace web in 18 1/2 -yd. pieces, 1 1/2 in. to 2 1/2 in. wide. Game-bag web is sometimes required, and is bought by the yard in different colours. Men's body-belt web is to be had in 18-yd. pieces from 4 in. to 8 in. wide, and in seven or eight colours. Straining-web for saddle seats can be bought by the yard or in the piece. A country saddler finds diaper-web very useful; this is bought in 15-yd. pieces.

A few reliable recipes for some of the most necessary articles employed in harness making will now be given.

The exact amount of oil to be used in both of the above recipes depends on the season and the weather. A little lampblack may be well mixed in when the wax is required very black. Always melt the pitch and resin together, and then add the oil. Afterwards pour the mixture into cold water, and knead and pull it until it floats. Try a small piece first to ascertain whether there is sufficient oil, and likewise after pulling to see whether it floats.

STRAP MAKING AND STITCHING.

Instructions have been given on making threads and cutting leather, and now a simple exercise in stitching may be given in the putting together of small straps.

In making a box strap, cut with the round knife or plough from the back of the hide a good piece of leather, which should be 6 ft. long, and 1 1/2 in. wide. Turn down about 2 in. of one end, cut a hole within about 1/4 in. of the bend, and slit the part out with two cuts. Neatly shave down the point of the under piece with the round knife, and slant the other end a bit at each side to make a neat point to enter the buckle easily. Run the No. 1 edge tool along the sharp edges of the two sides and of the top and bottom; this takes a small strip off, rounds the edges, and produces a better finish. If brown leather is used, wipe the edges with a damp sponge; instead of pure water, a very thin solution of gum may be used. Then rub the edges with a rag or with a piece of brown paper until they are smooth and polished.

Adjust the screw-crease so that it marks a line about 1/8 in. inside the edges, warm the crease in a gas or candle flame, and rub it sharply all along the edge, guiding the crease mark on the strap by keeping the other side of the crease close up to the strap. Rub backwards and forwards until there is a deep polished mark on the strap, then mark across the point in the same way. This operation is known as creasing.

Two crease marks instead of one may be made after turning the thumb-screw to widen the points of the tool. Then cut a piece to form a loop about 3/4 in. wide and long enough to go round any part of the strap and make the ends meet. Edge this in the same way as the strap, polish with dye or water according to colour, and then crease.

For a running loop--one that runs loosely along the strap--the leather about 1/2 in. longer than twice the width of the strap so as to overlap; shave one end on the top or grain side, and the other on the bottom or flesh side, so that when jointed the pieces will make an even thickness. Allow sufficient length for the two thicknesses of strap to go through, and mark where it is to overlap. Put one side of the doubled part in the clamp and stitch the side opposite, then reverse it and stitch the other; all running loops are made in this way except for very common straps, when the strips are simply brought end to end and a stitch or two is made from side of the doubled part in the clamp and stitch the buckle, put the tongue point of the latter through the hole made for it in the strap, and having marked the stitches eight or ten to the inch with the wheel-pricker on the short underpart, put the loop in between the two leathers deep enough for the stitches to hold firmly. Begin stitching by the buckle, putting a cross stitch downwards close to it. Stitch the straight row along the line of marks close to the buckle end, and have a stitch over; do not pull the thread up at the last stitch, but have both the ends underneath. Put two or three stitches in the centre at the point; here also the last stitch is downwards. Then begin stitching the other side. With the awl put the first hole close to the point and pull the thread through; make the next hole and put the other thread up and the top one down, and so on until the loop is reached. See that the loop is of the right length; if too long, cut a bit off. Put the point in between the two leathers, deep enough to catch the stitches, and put one or two stitches in the side next to the thread, slanting the awl a little outwards at the point. Put the upper needle through the loop so that the stitching will not be over it, and have a stitch or two in the side of the loop next to the worker; finish it up to the buckle. Put a cross stitch at the finish, the same as on the other side, and cut the thread. Put a loop stick of the same width and thickness as the strap through both loops, hammer them lightly to shape, and run the warm single crease along the edges. With a punch of the right size cut the required number of buckle holes, beginning about 5 in. from the point; make the distance between the holes a little more than the width of the strap. This is always the rule in punching single straps, such as garters, cart hame straps, dog muzzle straps, luggage straps, etc.

With regard to threading the needles, a properly made thread will have a nice point, which must be well waxed, and pulled between the finger and thumb two or three times to warm the wax so that it will stick. Pass the end through the eye of the needle for from 1 in. to 2 in., according to the fineness of the point, and holding the thread between the finger and the thumb of the left hand, spin it from you with the finger and thumb of the right hand. Afterwards draw the thread from the needle downwards at the point between the fingers so as to stick the point together well and make it smooth. Take care not to put it too far through the eye, or it will be too thick to go through the holes in the leather, while if it is not pulled through far enough the thread is liable to break. Be careful also to get needles of proper size; light thread for light work and strong thread for thick and heavy work; and a fine awl for fine thread, and a coarse and strong one for coarser thread, and so on.

In making the first hole in stitching, put the needle and thread up from underneath, and draw exactly half of the thread through. Put both needles together and adjust the lengths of the two portions of threads, and with the awl cut the second hole, and stitch on. Always put the lower thread in each hole first and draw it up about 3 in., then put the other needle in and pull, always keeping the thread from below lowest in the hole and the top thread above. This is managed by pulling with the upper hand a bit downwards, and with the hand at the back of the work a bit upwards, thus tending to keep the stitches in position. It may be noticed that the hole is not round, but square and elongated, and tends to help the manipulation of the thread. Do not make a practice of pushing the awl through the work at right angles to the face, but on the slant; the holes made by the wheel-pricker are all on the slant. The above instructions also apply to double-thread stitching, the kind mostly used in harness making, though many things, such as the straps, described above, are stitched with single thread.

In back stitching, use one thread only; begin by putting it up from below; put it down backwards in the next hole to the one last made, and then pull it tightly from below. There is not much difference on the top side, but the stitches on the underside are twice as long and cross each other in chain fashion. Sometimes it is convenient to adopt this method to use up waste points, etc., but such things as traces, surcingles, waist-belts of web, saddle girths, etc., are always stitched with single thread. When repairing inferior harness, single thread can sometimes be used without stitching backwards, by doing what is called spotting, that is, always going forward thus / / /, and only up and down forward, the stitching appearing like spots, and not as an unbroken chain.

Stitching with white lace in cart work is done in this manner:--Put the holes on the upper side very close together, but underneath; the distance apart may vary with the fineness of the work. This kind of lace stitching is not much in vogue now, but it looks well when across the end of breechings for cart purposes, across the openings in cart cruppers, etc. Lace needles and white skin will be necessary for this work.

Riding bridles and almost all light brown work are stitched single thread and backwards, with either white linen, cotton, or silk beeswaxed, or sometimes with yellow fine hemp thread beeswaxed.

Dog-collars are made in a similar way to the straps previously mentioned, only the bend is made a little longer underneath to allow sufficient lining under the D to which the chain may be fastened.

Now that an insight into stitching has been obtained, the making of a waist-belt, Figs. 64 to 66, may be described. Cut the web so that its ends meet together round the waist, and also cut pieces of very thin belly brown leather or basil, for binding the ends; the latter should be about 1 1/4 in. wide, and as long as the webbing is wide. Turn down the binding along the centre lengthways, hammer it lightly, and with the screw-crease mark along one side; then slip it in both sides of the ends of the web, and either put a tack or two in it, to keep it in place, or paste it down. Allow the paste to dry before proceeding further. With the wheel-pricker along the crease mark the stitches, about ten to the inch, then put the web in the clamp, the latter being between the knees, and begin stitching at the end farthest from the worker. Use one yellow or white linen thread dressed with beeswax. On coming to the end, cut the thread; also cut the binding square with the edge of the web and stitch both ends across at some distance from the edge.

Prepare the pieces to be put over the straps and chapes; cut them about 3 in. wide, and straight on one side, making any fancy cut on the other; two of these pieces are wanted, one at each end. Then cut the straps and chapes, and use light tinned bridle buckles or brown covered buckles 7/8 in. wide. With the compasses set to the right width, mark out the straps on a close piece of brown shoulder or belly leather. Cut the straps about 6 in. long and the chapes about 2 1/2 in. long. They may be cut in long strips, being afterwards divided into the required lengths. Form the strap, point one end a little, and shave the other end to go under the pieces above mentioned; rub the edges either with water or solution, and crease them about 1/16 in. from the edge. Then turn down the chapes for the buckles, shave down both ends thin, and let the lower one be a little shorter than the other. Punch a small hole about 1/4 in. from the end, cut the hole clean out at the bend, and the piece is then ready for the buckle.

Use thin brown waste to make the loops; with the compasses mark a width of this about 3/8 in., cut to the right length; then rub and crease the chapes. Place the buckles in the leather, put in the loops about half the width of the chape between the two points of the chape, and close to the buckle, and put two or three stitches in each end. The pieces to hold up the belt firmly at the small of the back should be about 1 in. wide. Rub the edges and crease them as well as the two pieces for the front, and mark stitches with the pricker in all of them. Three of these back supports will be needed, one right across the centre of the belt and one on each side, 3 in. from the centre at the top and slanting inwards to within 1 1/2 in. from the centre at the bottom.

To determine which is the lower and which is the upper side of the belt, bear in mind that, when being worn, the buckles will be on the left-hand side and the straps on the right. Put one of the 3-in. wide pieces flat on the belt, within about 3 in. of the end, and either paste or tack it in its place from the lower side. Put the straps in about 3/4 in., all three exactly alike, one in the centre, and the others one on each side within 1/8 in. of the edge. Place the other piece in the other end so near the edge that, in putting the buckle chapes up to the loops under the edge of the piece, the outer edge of the buckle is flush with the end of the belt. Fasten the chapes in position exactly opposite the straps in the other end. Then backstitch the pieces in each end all round, in the same way as the binding was treated. Put a second row of stitches farther in than the first, through the strap ends and through the end of the chapes; leave about 1/2 in. between two rows, and then lay on the back straps. Having pricked them, stitch them in the same way as the others. If pasted on, they can be kept more easily in their place; if pasting is not convenient, pencil on their positions and keep them to the mark in stitching.

It is usual to put a piece of whalebone or good hard cane inside these to keep them up; thin the bone or cane and push it in between the leather and webbing from one end, and then stitch both ends across. Put four or six holes in the straps and see that they work easily in the loops, when the belt is finished.

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