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PREFACE Tins volume contains twelve essays written at various times during recent years. Many of them are studies contributed to Scientific Reviews or delivered as popular lectures. Some are expositions of views the scientific basis of which may be regarded as established. Others--the greater number--may be described as attempting the solution of problems which cannot be approached by direct observation.

The essay on The Birth-time of the World is based on a lecture delivered before the Royal Dublin Society. The subject has attracted much attention within recent years. The age of the Earth is, indeed, of primary importance in our conception of the longevity of planetary systems. The essay deals with the evidence, derived from the investigation of purely terrestrial phenomena, as to the period which has elapsed since the ocean condensed upon the Earth's surface. Dr. Decker's recent addition to the subject appeared too late for inclusion in it. He finds that the movements which geologists recognise as taking place deep in the Earth's crust, indicate an age of the same order of magnitude

as that which is inferred from the statistics of denudative history.

Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. xxvi, March 1915.

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my power to go. This paper appeared in the "Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 1897." The theory put forward is a purely physical one, and, if justified, the view that intelligent beings exist in Mars derives no support from his visible surface features; but is, in fact, confronted with fresh difficulties.

Skating is a discourse, with a recent addition supporting the original thesis. It is an illustration of a common experience--the explanation of an unimportant action involving principles the most influential considered as a part of Nature's resources.

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based on the facts of photo-electricity had not been attempted. Students of this subject will notice that the views expressed are similar to those subsequently put forward by Lenard and Saeland in explanation of phosphorescence. The whole matter is of more practical importance than appears at first sight, for the photoelectric nature of the effects involved in the radiative treatment of many cruel diseases seems to be beyond doubt.

subjects dealt with, and, it is to be hoped, they will in some cases recall to the reader scenes which have in past times influenced his thoughts in the same manner; scenes which in their endless perspective seem to reduce to their proper insignificance the lesser things of life.

July, 1915.

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THE BIRTH-TIME OF THE WORLD

LONG ago Lucretius wrote: "For lack of power to solve the question troubles the mind with doubts, whether there was ever a birth-time of the world and whether likewise there is to be any end." "And if" "there was no birth-time of earth and heaven and they have been from everlasting, why before the Theban war and the destruction of Troy have not other poets as well sung other themes? Whither have so many deeds of men so often passed away, why live they nowhere embodied in lasting records of fame? The truth methinks is that the sum has but a recent date, and the nature of the world is new and has but lately had its commencement."

Thus spake Lucretius nearly 2,000 years ago. Since then we have attained another standpoint and found very different limitations. To Lucretius the world commenced with man, and the answer he would give to his questions was in accord with his philosophy: he would date the birth-time of the world from the time when

poets first sang upon the earth. Modern Science has along with the theory that the Earth dated its beginning with the advent of man, swept utterly away this beautiful imagining. We can, indeed, find no beginning of the world. We trace back events and come to barriers which close our vista--barriers which, for all we know, may for ever Hill--Ambohijanahary--Ambohitsara--Enquiries about the Gun--The Alaotra Lake and the Scenery around it--Marosal?zana and its bright Scholars--Memorials of the Dead--Whence came the Sihanaka People--How they became Christians--What the Gospel is doing for them--Form, Extent and Population of the District

OUR JOURNEY TO MOJANG?.

Last Meetings in the Capital--Farewell PAGES interview with the Queen--Departure to 269-320 Vonizongo--North Vonizongo--Angavo--The five Garrison Towns--Religious condition of their People--Crossing the Wilderness--No man's Land--The Cataracts of the Ikopa--Vast deposits of Drift--Town of Mevatan?na--Voyage in Canoes--Junction of the Ikopa and Betsiboka Rivers--Amparihibe--Crocodiles in the River--The Level Plains--Town of Trabonjy, its Governor and People--Marovoay--Arrival at Mojang?: Its Churches and People--Religious condition of the District--Trade and History of Mojang?

OUR RETURN HOME.

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ANTANANARIVO: CHURCH AT Frontispiece AMPAMARINANA

FORD OF THE MANDRAKA 40

TURTLE-HEAD 54 ROCK--AMBATOMALAZA

TSI-AFAK-AFO FROM THE 58 WEST

TOWN OF FIANARANTSOA 67

MR. PEARSE'S HOUSE 111

MARTYR'S CAVE 119

THE QUEEN'S RESIDENCE 143

STONE GATE AT ARIVONIMAMO 193

FALLS OF THE IKOPA 225

GATEWAY OF 300 POLES--MEVATANANA

MAP OF CENTRAL PROVINCES 335 OF MADAGASCAR

WHY AND HOW WE WENT TO MADAGASCAR.

Religious Revolution in Madagascar--The Idols burned--Increased Help sent from England to the Mission--A Deputation appointed to visit the Island--Our Journey thither--Marseilles--Naples--Fellow-passengers--The Suez Canal--Aden--The Indian Ocean--Mauritius--The Bullockers--Passage across--Tamatave; the Town, Port, and Market--English and Native Friends--Sunday--The Native Churches and their Worship--Help they need--Importation of Rum into Madagascar and its evils--The Trade of Madagascar.

TWELVE MONTHS IN MADAGASCAR.

WHY AND HOW WE WENT TO MADAGASCAR.

ON the 8th of September 1869, a religious revolution took place in Madagascar. The priests and diviners of the idol Kelimal?za came to the Queen, and urged that, like her predecessors, she should again take the idol into her palace, and place her whole kingdom under its protection. The Queen had, from the commencement of her reign, eighteen months before, taken her stand as a Christian; and in the previous February, in the presence of her people, had been baptized as a Christian. Her husband, the Prime Minister, and an influential body of nobles and officers, had adopted the same faith: and Christianity was making great strides among her subjects generally. The keepers of the three national idols had in consequence been deposed from their position as keepers of the ruler's conscience, as directors of lucky and unlucky days, and as instigators of the persecutions, from which the land had suffered great harm. They had also been deprived of their special privileges. They were no longer Andr?ans, entitled to the scarlet umbrella, exempt from the jurisdiction of the ordinary Courts, and having the power of life and death over their own clan; they were simply Hovas, and were bound to render to their sovereign that feudal service, to which all other members of the tribe were subject. All this was trying enough. Men, who have long enjoyed exclusive privileges at others' expense, are usually dissatisfied when their vested interests are set aside without compensation. And when, in the month of June, the Queen laid the foundation of her Chapel Royal, and summoned these priestly families to do their share in building it, they made a last desperate attempt to recover their former position. They came to the Queen and urged her to place the land under the idols once more.

The occasion was felt to be an important one. There was a hurried consultation. A large number of officers was summoned; and a discussion commenced among them as to how the difficulty should be met. A happy suggestion offered by one of them, that the idols should be burned, was heartily approved by all. Due authority was given by the Queen, and several officers were at once dispatched on horseback to the village where the chief idol was kept. Arrived at the idol-house, the leader went in and brought the idol out, "Whose idol is this?" he asked of the bystanders. "It belongs to the Queen," was their reply. "If this idol be mine," saith R?nav?lo-manj?ka, "I need it not: let it be burned." And burned it was, with all its trappings, to their consternation and grief. The other royal idols shared the same fate.

Profound as was the sensation produced by the burning of the idols abroad, it was not less deeply felt at home. The greatness of the event was discerned: its spiritual significance was instantly appreciated. No such event had occurred in the history of Christendom before: no such multitude of willing men and women had ever knocked for admission at the Church's door in a single year. It was the fruit of the long and painful persecution of twenty-eight years. It was the fruit of the faithfulness of the martyrs, dead and living, upon whose sufferings and fidelity all Christendom had looked with sympathy. It was the answer to the thousands of prayers which those sufferings had called forth.

The case was thoroughly appreciated. A few enthusiasts might talk of Madagascar as christianized, and think it needed Christian help no longer. But the Committees of Missionary Societies, the men who have been dealing with the practical life of heathen nations for many years, and have been studying the many problems involved in their redemption, were not likely to make that mistake. A new born child is not the educated, thoughtful, self-denying man, he some day may be. With his birth and growth the trials and responsibilities of parents begin. Many a missionary has found that his work in instructing the heathen was as nothing, compared with the labour, anxiety and trial, which fell to his lot, when he began to gather converts around him, and by God's help endeavoured to train them to holiness and trust, while "the world, the flesh, and the devil" were drawing them back again to evil. With the thankfulness and congratulations which this great change inspired in the friends of the Imerina Mission, it was felt that new duties of a most serious kind devolved upon them; and the Directors of the London Missionary Society, who had maintained that mission and had aided the Malagasy Churches for more than fifty years, determined without delay to enlarge the mission by all the agencies which the crisis called for. Large sums of money were contributed almost unasked; and within the five years that have since elapsed twenty English missionaries have been added to the staff previously labouring in the island. It was resolved to commence new stations, and to enlarge and strengthen the Theological and Normal Schools; to increase and stimulate general education; and to make the Press more efficient. Other Christian missions, working in cordial co-operation with the London Missionary Society, were enlarged at the same time.

Nothing could be more desirable than that these increased agencies should be carefully applied so as to produce the largest amount of good. Especially was it felt to be important that every English missionary, expected to be a fountain of wisdom and of spiritual power to the simple people around him, should be located in a position that would call forth all his strength, and give to his abilities and influence the widest scope. As time went on it seemed increasingly difficult to secure these important ends. Much as we heard from abroad, and much as we wrote to Madagascar from London, it grew more plain that no amount of correspondence would suffice to convey to us and to them all the information as to details which it was desirable for each side to know; especially when that correspondence was frequently interrupted and delayed by its transit through one of the most inefficient mail-services known to the civilised world, the service between Bourbon and Madagascar. The conviction grew that nothing would suffice for the accomplishment of our purpose, nothing would supply all missing links and make co-operation complete, but that two or three Directors of the Society should proceed to the island, and that the missionaries and these Directors, as "friends in council," should together shape the new scheme, which the enlarged mission imperatively required. It was felt to be an additional advantage that, by visiting the island, the members of such a deputation would have an opportunity of meeting the native pastors and native churches, and of assuring them both of the warm affection in which they were still held by their old friends, and of the gladness with which they would still be aided in their new and pressing wants. The Rev. JOHN PILLANS of Camberwell, a Director of the Society, and myself were honoured with the appointment; and after several impressive services, in which we were affectionately commended to the divine protection, and the divine blessing was sought on our expedition, we set out on our journey. Mrs. Pillans also accompanied us.

A pleasant day between Paris and Lyons, followed by a hot and weary night, brought us to Marseilles, our port of embarkation. Marseilles is now a great city, with six hundred thousand inhabitants; and its new streets, in solidity, breadth, and grandeur, compare favourably with those of Paris. The trade passing through the city is enormous. Its new quay and harbour are crowded with steamers, which connect it by commercial ties with all the ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, and which in recent years have extended their lines to India, China, and Japan; while, conspicuous to all eyes, on its rocky hill, stands the church of Notre Dame de la Garde, the shrine at which the sailors of Marseilles have registered their vows and paid their thanks, from the day when, two thousand five hundred years ago, the Greek colonists of Phocaea founded the city of Massilia, and erected their first temple. Perhaps no shrine in Europe can boast of such a long and unbroken line of worshippers.

There came on board at Naples a number of gentlemen in whom we felt considerable interest, and who proved agreeable companions. They were silk merchants from various cities of Italy, engaged in the endeavour to restore the Italian silk-trade, which has in recent years been almost ruined by disease among the worms. They make an annual voyage to Japan, and bring back with them enormous quantities of the best silkworms' eggs. These are stowed in a special compartment of the vessel, iced to keep them cool, and a heavy freight is paid for the accommodation. Our new passengers were a tall, manly body of men; many of them had the unmistakeable Roman face and features; and when one saw them at dinner, enlivening the tedium of the seven courses with the hearty laugh and witty repartee, one felt that classical life was coming home very freshly, and could realise it more distinctly than before.

The Red Sea is proverbially hot in June, July, and August, and we found it hot indeed. For five days the thermometer ranged between eighty-seven degrees at night and ninety-eight degrees by day; but the heat was tempered by pleasant winds; and no one seemed distressed by it, except those who drank large quantities of claret and water to keep them cool. Under circumstances peculiarly favourable, our noble steamer pressed forward with perfect steadiness, and after a run of four days and a half from Suez, anchored on Friday morning in Aden harbour.

The general verdict of Indian visitors respecting Aden, is that it is a "horrid hole." Certainly the scenery is not brilliant, it is deficient in verdure; and in the middle of the year, with wild west winds, the thermometer stands nearer one hundred degrees than ninety degrees. Nevertheless Aden has an interest of its own; and associations of deep interest cluster around it. The peninsula of Aden, which cuts off from the sea a wide landlocked harbour is formed by an immense volcano, a mile wide in the interior and having huge walls and buttresses of cindery lava all around it. It is a weird-looking place; but it has for many ages been a helper to the commerce of the world. An outpost of India, well governed, it has long been the protector of the overland trade and a good coaling station. Its importance has increased with the opening of the Canal; and at times several steamers call every day for water, ice, and coal. Beyond this Aden was, next to Zanzibar, the principal station of the most ancient commerce of the world. The Phenicians knew and used it before the days of Hiram. The fleets of Solomon called there on their way to Cochin and Malabar, whence, after their three years' voyage, they bore to Judea "the ivory, ebony, apes, and peacocks" described by their Indian names in the sacred records. To Solomon are attributed the cutting and completion of the great water tanks, which were rediscovered, cleansed, and enlarged by the government of India only eight years ago. From Aden went forth whole fleets of Phenician vessels, to the coasts of India and Africa; and in the middle ages it was one great stay of the eastern trade from which Europe had been entirely cut off.

I cannot dwell on our little visit to the Mauritius; the island is well known and has only recently been well described. We found many friends and received the kindest hospitality and help at their hands. We travelled along the railways; saw the charming bits of scenery with which this volcanic island abounds; and visited the Pamplemousse Gardens, in which I found many old Indian friends. The fan palm and the betel-nut, the talipot of Ceylon, the poinsettia, the Ponciana regia, and the Bouganvillier creeper were represented by fine specimens. More pleasant still was it to visit the market, full of the Indian grains and vegetables; to handle once more d?l and rice; to see the huge melons, the cucumbers and tomatoes, of which the people of India are so fond; and to talk Hindustani to the coolies and traders, while asking of their welfare and the whereabouts of their Indian homes. Most pleasant of all was it, to meet on the Sunday a little congregation of Indians at the station of the Church Missionary Society, and preach to them in Bengali, the tongue with which I had been most familiar during the years of my Indian life. The week passed rapidly away; and as one of the regular "liners" was about to cross to Madagascar, we prepared to take our passage in her.

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