Read Ebook: Public opinion and the teaching of history in the United States by Pierce Bessie Louise

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See citations in footnote 52.

Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska.

Connecticut, Illinois, Montana, Ohio, Oregon being the states which required only history. Oregon's requirement was modern history.

Kentucky and Oregon passed laws this year.

New Hampshire, Virginia and Louisiana.

Dakota Territory, Montana, Idaho, Washington excluded from their schools "partisan" textbooks.

LAWS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE HISTORY CURRICULUM

The twentieth century did not usher in unexpected developments in the American educational system, for the school had begun to experience a transformation of purpose in the period following the Civil War. It was not, however, until after 1900 that the forces aroused by the Economic Revolution began to assert themselves to a marked degree and to seek means to equip the individual for the complex responsibilities of his social relationships. The early years of the new century saw a tidal wave of reform sweep into all phases of American life. Agitation for the recall of judicial decisions and the introduction of such measures as the initiative and referendum attested new convictions in the realm of politics. The reform spirit found expression in muck-raking literature, movements for the betterment of dependents on society, legislation to alleviate unfortunate industrial conditions, and schemes of co?peration between employer and employee bore testimony to a new social consciousness and national morality.

The public school also gave evidence of the spirit of the new era through the changed character of its instruction.

"Preparation for citizenship" became the keynote of the period, perhaps better expressed by John Dewey's definition of education as "The process of remaking experience, giving it a more socialized value through increased individual experience by giving the individual better control over his powers." History and the other social studies gained in popularity as especially adapted to implant the right social attitude.

This wider outlook on life did not confine itself solely to an interest in domestic affairs, for the Spanish-American War had banished the long-cherished theory of national isolation. The international viewpoint was encouraged further by the fact that by 1900 the United States had achieved second place as an exporting nation. As a result, the study of foreign history gained in popularity, and increased offerings in the social studies curriculum evinced the growing favor in which these subjects were held.

In planning the course of study, educational associations showed much activity in committee reports. The report of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association doubtless had a pronounced influence in the curriculum making of the greater part of this period. In 1907, it was followed by the report of the Committee of Five, who made slight changes in the list of studies recommended by the Committee of Seven. However, modern European history received greater emphasis than in the first report, a tangible expression of the expanding horizon of the time. In 1909, the Committee of Eight attempted to standardize a course in history for the elementary schools, in which was included not only United States history but a study of European history.

From 1900 to the year of our entrance into the World War, thirty-two states approved laws incorporating history and other social studies in the curriculum of the public schools, approximately twice as many as had legislated from 1860 to 1900. The importance placed upon the study of United States history, federal and local civics and state history in the previous period persisted. The early years of the century were characterized also by laws pertaining to the teaching of patriotism through the celebration of historic events, by statutes to inspire reverence for the flag, and by enactments indicative of sectional interest.

In 1900, Vermont amended her law prescribing the high school course of study, and designated political economy, civil government and general history among the branches to be taught. Other enactments, enumerating the prerequisites for a high school, included thirty-three weeks of history and the natural, political, social, moral and industrial sciences. In 1906, there was provided instruction for elementary pupils in the history and constitution of the United States and the history, constitution and principles of the government of Vermont. In 1915, the teaching of "citizenship" was approved for all rural schools of a six year course, and for elementary schools of eight years.

The tendency to emphasize a study of the Constitution has no better illustration than in the laws of New Hampshire, where, in 1901, it was made compulsory for every high school to give "reasonable instruction in the constitution of the United States and in the constitution of New Hampshire." Later enactments further stressed the importance of a knowledge of the state and federal constitutions by prescribing that "in all mixed schools and in all grades above the primary, the constitution of the United States and of the state of New Hampshire be read aloud by the scholars at least once during the last year of the course below the high school." The teaching of citizenship was the purpose of a Connecticut law of 1903 and of 1915, prescribing regular instruction for all pupils above the fourth grade in "the duties of citizenship, including the knowledge of the form of national, state, and local government."

Training in citizenship was the purpose of a Delaware law of 1911, which prescribed that teachers train their pupils in "honesty, kindness, justice, and moral courage ... for the purpose of lessening crime and raising the standard of good citizenship." Four years later it was followed by an enactment requiring the teaching of United States history and instruction in "the general principles of the constitution of the United States" and of the state.

In 1911 Pennsylvania prescribed for the elementary schools the teaching of United States history, history of the state and civil government. These subjects received the statutory endorsement of Kentucky in 1904, Virginia in 1904 and 1906, North Carolina in 1901, 1905, 1907, 1908 and 1913. South Carolina in several laws from 1892 required for schools under the direction of boards of trustees and of county boards of education, the "history of the United States and of this state, the principles of the constitution of the United States and of this state, morals and good behavior."

Texas gave her sanction to the same subjects in 1905, and Alabama prescribed that in all schools and colleges supported in whole or in part by public money, or under state control, there should be instruction in the constitution of the United States and of the state of Alabama. In Georgia, the law prescribed as part of the curriculum for the common schools that "the elements of civil government shall be included in the branches of study taught in the common or public schools, and shall be studied and taught as thoroughly and in the same manner as other like required branches are studied and taught in said public schools." West Virginia attained some individuality in adding to state and national history and civil government, "general and West Virginia geography."

In the schools of Florida instruction in "history" was required for the intermediate grades, and in the grammar grades the "history and civil government of Florida and of the United States." Additional emphasis was placed upon the teaching of civics in 1909 when an act provided that the "elements of civil government be taught in the common and public schools of the state, ... to be studied and taught as thoroughly and in the same manner as any other required subjects."

Louisiana committed herself to the teaching of United States history in every school district as an elementary branch by an act of 1902; and Mississippi, in 1916, prescribed for the "curriculum of the free public schools," civil government with special reference to local and state government, the history of the nation and of the state.

Wisconsin, as early as 1865, had required as essential for a district school education, United States history and civil government, local history and government, a practice continued through 1917. In schools offering industrial education, citizenship became an obligatory study by the statutes of 1913. Minnesota made a knowledge of United States history prerequisite for entrance into high schools, and Indiana expanded her list of the required number of studies to include, in all commissioned high schools, civil government, general and state, ancient, medieval or modern history and the history of the United States. For the curriculum of the common schools, there was required in Indiana the study of United States history, a practice developed from a law first in force in August 1869.

South Dakota, North Dakota, and Kansas also committed themselves to the subjects popular in this period. In Nebraska, "a study of American history for at least one semester in the eleventh and twelfth grades," became a requirement for normal training courses in the high school. Missouri made a knowledge of United States history essential for entrance into the high schools, as well as prescribing that no school could be classed as a high school which did not include a four years' course in history.

Oklahoma, in 1905, illustrated well the social viewpoint characteristic of the time in her law requiring "in each and every public school it should be the duty of each and every teacher to teach morality in the broadest meaning of the word, for the purpose of elevating and refining the character of school children up to the highest plane of life; that they may know how to conduct themselves as social beings in relation to each other, as respects right and wrong and rectitude of life, and thereby lessen wrong doing and crime." In 1907, another law prescribed "the elements of economics" for all public schools receiving support from the state.

A place of prominence in the normal training curriculum was accorded United States history by Oregon in 1911. In 1913, Wyoming enacted a law requiring of her superintendent of public instruction the preparation of a course of study for the elementary schools in the usual subjects, including United States history and the history and civil government of Wyoming, and by an act of 1917 history and civics were required in the teacher training departments of the high school. California, too, succumbed to the trend of the times, and in 1903 and in succeeding years prescribed the teaching of United States history and civil government for a public school education.

In the revision of her territorial laws in 1901, Arizona again included United States history as a school subject; and by legislation in 1912, New Mexico showed her approval of the social studies in "An Act to Encourage the Instruction in the History and Civics of the State of New Mexico." This law forbade any person to teach in the public schools unless he had passed a satisfactory examination in the history and civics of the United States as well as in the history and civics of the state. "It shall be the duty of the teachers in the public schools of the state," the law read, "to give such instruction as is practicable in the history and civics of the United States with special reference to the history and civics of the state of New Mexico; which said instruction may be given orally or by study of textbooks covering the subject and which said textbooks shall have been adopted by the State Board of Education." The statute specified that the textbook in state history and civics must be prepared "by a known historian of the state" and "be sold at a price to be fixed by the State Board of Education not to exceed one dollar per volume."

Of the thirty-two states which had enacted laws during this period for the teaching of the social studies, substantially all required United States history, federal and local civics. State history, which had attained some popularity in the preceding period, received attention in many statutes. Laws requiring the teaching of European history in some form were found in Vermont, Indiana, Ohio and Missouri, and economics was prescribed in the laws of Oklahoma and Vermont.

CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS

The tendency to enlarge and enrich the social studies curriculum was more evident in the requirements for teachers' certificates than in the courses of study prescribed by law. These requirements, in general, included ancient, medieval and modern history, general history, English history, economics and sociology, besides civil government, state history and history of the United States. Especially was there an increased offering of subjects for high school teachers. In the elementary and county licenses only civics and United States history were required with the greatest frequency. Among those states which passed new laws or re?nacted old legislation offering ancient, medieval or modern history were California, Idaho, Oregon, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, Missouri, and Texas. English history appeared among the subjects in the laws of Idaho, Nevada, Kansas, and Wisconsin; general history was one of the requirements for certification in the laws of West Virginia, Ohio, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, Utah, Nevada, Washington, and Idaho.

Economics, or, as it was more commonly known, political economy, was prescribed in Iowa, Nebraska, and Wyoming. South Dakota permitted for examination either sociology or economics, and Wisconsin and Arkansas insisted upon a knowledge of "rural economics." "Current events" or "current history" were among the requirements of South Dakota in her law of 1919, and of Nevada, in 1907, and in 1921, for certification of primary, grammar and high school classes.

State history and the study of the state constitution received recognition in the requirements of Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, Oklahoma, Texas, Wisconsin, South Dakota, Illinois, Kansas, and New Mexico.

Of all of the social studies required for certification, however, United States history and civil government were the most popular, being prescribed in some law in every state excepting Arizona. In some of the states where there was no special enactment prescribing United States history or civics, the examining board may have been given the privilege of naming the subjects for examining the candidates, or, through custom, they may have become a part of the subjects in which examinations were held. It is also true that colleges and normal schools have taken over the preparation of teachers in the subjects which they are to teach, making unnecessary many of the examinations previously held.

FLAG LEGISLATION AND OBSERVANCE DAYS

A means of implanting patriotism in the pupils of the public schools has been legislation pertaining to the display of the American flag, the development of a proper attitude toward it, and the singing of the national anthem. Ten states gave expression to this form of training for patriotism in this period. Similar to such enactments was the legal provision made for the observance of the birthdays of great men and the commemoration of historic events by classroom exercises. In addition, there was a constantly growing number of legal holidays upon which no school was in session.

Laws respecting the flag were, and are, of three general kinds: that each school must possess a flag for display in a conspicuous place, that proper respect for the flag be taught, and that suitable exercises be engaged in at definitely stated intervals. This last type of law often proves the occasion for the reciting in unison of the salute to the flag, the so-called "American Creed," or the preamble to the Constitution. In the second variety of law a pledge of allegiance is the keynote of the sentiment expressed, such as: "I pledge allegiance to my flag and to the Republic for which it stands; one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all"; or, "We give our hearts and our hands to God and our Country; one country, one flag, and one language."

In 1898, New York enacted "flag" legislation which had the three-fold characteristics of such laws. Within the next few years this law was followed by statutes of like kind in Massachusetts, Indiana, Iowa, and Arizona. However, as later legislation appeared, it took on a more elaborate phraseology, with a more open avowal of patriotic purpose. This is well illustrated by an act of 1909 in Indiana, which ordered that "the state board of education shall require the singing of the 'Star Spangled Banner' in its entirety in the schools of the state of Indiana, upon all patriotic occasions," with the necessary admonition "that the said board of education shall arrange to supply the words in sufficient quantity for the purposes indicated therein."

Relying upon the governor's proclamation, New Jersey, in 1915, set aside the week of September sixth to thirteenth for appropriate exercises to be held, at least one day in the interval named, by schools and churches in commemoration of the one hundredth birthday of the national anthem.

Closely akin to the enactments respecting the flag and patriotic exercises were those designating days for special patriotic observance. Laws providing for the establishment of Memorial Day are of such a character. In general, Memorial Day legislation was sectional in character and acclaimed the results of the Civil War from the Northerner's standpoint. In 1886, the Kansas legislature, moved by patriotic feeling, had resolved to observe the day in fitting manner, inasmuch as "during the past ten or twelve years the loyal people of the United States, inspired by a sentiment of reverent respect for the memory of our heroic dead, have by spontaneous consent, dedicated the thirtieth day of May of each year to ceremonies in honor of the soldiers who cheerfully sacrificed their own lives to save the life of the republic. 'They need no praise whose deeds are eulogy,' and nothing that we can now say or do will add to the glory or brighten the fame of the gallant host who, a quarter of a century ago, came thronging from farms, workshops, offices and schools, to fight, to suffer and die for the Union and freedom. But the story of their sublime self-sacrifice, and their dauntless courage, should be kept forever fresh and fair in the hearts and minds of the young, until the end of recorded time. So long as men and women teach their children to revere the memory of patriot heroes, so long as the peaceful present honors and emulates the example of the war-worn past, there need be no fear that the dead have died in vain, or that 'a government of the people, by the people, for the people,' will perish from the earth. The steadily growing popularity of Memorial Day, and the universal interest taken in its beautiful ceremonies, is one of the most hopeful developments of American sentiments."

In 1890, Massachusetts, and in 1897, New Hampshire established in these commonwealths the custom of observing May the thirtieth by exercises of a patriotic nature in the schools. New York, in 1898, Arizona in 1903, and Kansas in 1907, also subscribed to the sentiment which dictated that Memorial Day be given special recognition.

The birthdays of Lincoln and Washington were also given recognition by New York in 1898, Arizona in 1903, and Kansas in 19O7. The year 1909 witnessed an expression of patriotic enthusiasm over Lincoln's contribution to the American nation, awakened, no doubt, by the centenary of his birth. During this year California, Maine, and New Mexico prescribed special observance of February the twelfth. Rhode Island followed in 1910, West Virginia in 1911, with Vermont in 1912 and in 1917.

Michigan prescribed the reading of the Declaration of Independence to all pupils in the public schools above the fifth grade upon the twelfth and twenty-second of February, and upon the twelfth of October, with an obviously patriotic intent, in her legislation of 1911. Washington's birthday occasioned legislation in Maryland in 1904 and in Maine in 1913, as a day suitable for the propagation of patriotism.

In the latter state Columbus Day, October 12, was included in those observance days upon which exercises should "aim to impress on the minds of the youth the important lessons of character and good citizenship to be learned from the lives of American leaders and heroes and from a contemplation of their own duties and obligations to the community, state, and nation of which they constituted a part." Columbus Day received the recognition of several other state legislatures, Michigan, West Virginia, Louisiana, and Oregon especially setting it aside for patriotic purposes.

Flag Day, likewise, was deemed worthy of observance. New York in her legislation of 1898, Arizona in 1903, and Kansas in 1907 included it among those days set aside for special exercises in the schools. Connecticut decreed, in 1905, that the governor, annually in the spring, should designate by official proclamation the fourteenth day of June as Flag Day, upon which "suitable exercises, having reference to the adoption of the national flag be held in the public schools."

In 1906, a proclamation of the governor of New Jersey, couched in grandiloquent phraseology, recommended that suitable exercises be held in the public schools for commemorating the birthday of the American flag. It urged a more extended knowledge of the flag's history. "The history of our flag is the history of the growth of our nation," he proclaimed, "and the celebration of the anniversary of its birth is not only a patriotic duty but an educational privilege. On the day of its inception it stood as an emblem of the unity of a few modest little colonies. To-day it is the symbol of a mighty nation. It has floated over many a battlefield, inspiring the sons of patriotism with a courage and strength that made possible the triumph of the right and the preservation of the Union. It has been carried to far distant lands and has aroused the enthusiasm of thousands to whom its advent meant emancipation from cruelty and oppression."

Reminiscent of the local history movement of the decades following the Civil War was legislation prescribing the celebration of days of interest peculiar to different states. In 1897, Massachusetts passed a resolution recommending to the governor that he issue a proclamation to public school teachers suggesting commemorative exercises for the centennial of the inauguration of "John Adams of Massachusetts," in order "to impress upon their pupils the significance of the inauguration of the president of the United States and the importance of the part sustained by the commonwealth in American history."

"Rhode Island Independence Day" was acclaimed in 1909, for May the fourth. At this time, so the statute read, the celebration of the "first official act of its kind by any of the thirteen American colonies" in a declaration of sovereignty and independence took place. From the date of the passage of the law, every fourth of May in the future, it was determined, should become the occasion for the salute of thirteen guns by detachments of the state artillery, at all places in the state where artillery was stationed, besides a display of state and national flags, as well as patriotic exercises in the public schools.

March the eighteenth assumed a distinctive place in the school calendar of South Carolina by a law enacted in 1906, being known as "South Carolina Day." The selection of this date sprang from a desire to honor John C. Calhoun, and from the hope that an observance of this day would "conduce to a more general knowledge and appreciation of the history, resources and possibilities of the State." In like spirit Georgia, in 1909, endeavored to awaken local pride in the pupils of the public schools by a celebration of "Georgia Day" on February twelfth, "as the landing of the first colonists in Georgia under Oglethorpe." Confederate heroes received special tribute by patriotic exercises on January nineteenth, the birthday of Robert E. Lee, through a law of Arkansas. The program of exercises, the law prescribed, should deal with events connected with the life of General Lee and "other distinguished Southern men" with attention to those men of renown in civil and military life. In Maryland, the state board of education, by a law of 1904, was given the privilege of naming a time suitable for the observance of "Maryland Day."

"The geography, history, industries and resources" of Minnesota, through a law of 1911, received especial attention in the public schools on "Minnesota Day." Montana, through a celebration of "Pioneer Day" endeavored to instruct in the pioneer history of the region. Missouri paid homage to her state history in a law of 1915 through observance by teachers and pupils on the first Monday in October. At this time, the law prescribed the "methodical consideration of the products of the mine, field and forest of the state" and the "consideration of the achievements of the sons and daughters of Missouri in commerce, literature, statesmanship and art, and in other departments of activity in which the state has rendered service to mankind." The American Indians, through a law of 1919, in Illinois, were likewise deemed worthy of commemorative exercises.

The persisting desire of the lawmaker to instil patriotism, either local or national, in pupils in the public schools has been the incentive for laws respecting the flag and observance days. Local pride is evident in the Northern laws for the observance of Memorial Day and the birthday of Lincoln; whereas in the South a sectional interest is shown in days memorializing the heroes of their section. The Middle and Far West have also attempted to inculcate local pride. There is a dearth of legislation in the Southern states for the commemoration of Flag Day by special exercises, but Washington and Columbus have been accorded homage by both the North and the South.

TEXTBOOK LEGISLATION

Textbook legislation from 1900 to 1917 followed the trend of other legislation of the time. As the curriculum of the social studies expanded, laws dealing with textbooks were made to include more subjects for which there was to be a uniform series selected. State history and civil government, both local and national, as well as foreign history and other social studies, were found more frequently among the subjects enumerated. The reaction which had set in against the enforced nationalism of the Reconstruction period in the South continued to express itself in those states in which there had hitherto been no open remonstrance.

In 1904, the Mississippi legislature instructed the textbook commission to select a uniform series of textbooks in United States history, civil government, state history and other subjects, and took occasion to prescribe that "no history in relation to the late civil war between the states shall be used in the schools in this state unless it be fair and impartial,...."

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