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UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.

GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL DOCTRINES; MONOGENISM AND POLYGENISM 30

SPECIES AND RACE IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 35

NATURE OF VARIATIONS IN ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE RACES; APPLICATION TO MAN 41

EXTENT OF VARIATIONS IN ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE RACES; APPLICATION TO MAN 47

INTERCROSSING AND FUSION OF CHARACTERS IN ANIMAL RACES; APPLICATION TO MAN 56

CROSSING OF RACES AND SPECIES IN THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE KINGDOMS.--MONGRELS AND HYBRIDS 63

CROSSING BETWEEN VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL RACES AND SPECIES; MONGRELS AND HYBRIDS; REALITY OF SPECIES 70

CROSSING BETWEEN HUMAN GROUPS.--UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES 85

ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.

ORIGIN OF SPECIES.--HYPOTHESES OF TRANSMUTATION.--DARWINISM 89

ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.--DIFFERENT HYPOTHESES 104

ANTIQUITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.

AGE OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.--PRESENT GEOLOGICAL EPOCH 129

AGE OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.--PAST GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS 142

ORIGINAL LOCALISATION OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.

AGASSIZ'S THEORY.--CENTRES OF CREATION 154

PROGRESSIVE LOCALISATION OF ORGANISED BEINGS.--CENTRES OF APPEARANCE.--ORIGINAL LOCALISATION OF MAN 168

PEOPLING OF THE GLOBE.

MIGRATIONS BY LAND.--EXODUS OF THE KALMUCKS FROM THE VOLGA 179

MIGRATIONS BY SEA.--POLYNESIAN MIGRATIONS.--MIGRATIONS TO NEW ZEALAND 185

MIGRATIONS BY SEA.--MIGRATIONS IN AMERICA 199

ACCLIMATISATION OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.

INFLUENCE OF CONDITIONS OF LIFE AND RACE 214

CONDITIONS OF ACCLIMATISATION 224

PRIMITIVE MAN.--FORMATION OF THE HUMAN RACES.

PRIMITIVE MAN 239

FORMATION OF HUMAN RACES UNDER THE SOLE INFLUENCE OF CONDITIONS OF LIFE AND HEREDITY 244

FOSSIL HUMAN RACES.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 287

THE CANSTADT RACE 302

THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 311

RACES OF FURFOOZ 337

PRESENT HUMAN RACES.--PHYSICAL CHARACTERS.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.--EXTERNAL CHARACTERS 349

ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS 370

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS 409

PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS 422

PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.

INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS 431

MORAL CHARACTERS 459

RELIGIOUS CHARACTERS 473

THE HUMAN SPECIES.

UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.

EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS OF NATURE.--THE HUMAN KINGDOM.--ANTHROPOLOGICAL METHOD.

The answer is not always easy. We know that, in what may be called the basis of each kingdom, there are ambiguous forms, whose nature has long been, and still is, the subject of contention among naturalists. We know that polyps were long regarded as plants, and that nullipores, at first taken for polyps, are now divided between the vegetable and mineral kingdoms; and, finally, we know that even now, botanists and zoologists dispute over certain diatoms and transfer them from one kingdom to the other.

Similarly the question has been asked:--What is man? and it has been answered from several points of view. To the naturalist it has but one meaning, and signifies, in which kingdom must man be placed? or better: is man an animal?

In spite of all the differences which a comparison of man with the mammalia presents, should he be classed with them? This question is similar to that which Peysonnel is said to have asked himself, when, struck by the special phenomena presented by the coral, he asked himself whether the object before him was a vegetable.

It is evident that, in order to solve the first problem which arises from a study of the natural history of man, we must have a clear idea what are these great groups of beings, which are called kingdoms; we must give an account of the characters which distinguish and separate them from each other, and then of their true scientific meaning. It will be sufficient for the purpose to explain the well-known laws of Linnaeus, supplementing the theory of the immortal Swede by some ideas borrowed from Pallas and de Candolle, and by one of the fundamental conceptions which Adamson and A. L. de Jussieu have almost equally contributed to introduce into science.

Inanimate bodies, when placed under favourable circumstances, last for an indefinite time, neither taking nor giving anything to the surrounding world; organised beings, under whatever conditions they are placed, only last for a fixed period of time, and, during this existence, undergo every moment losses of substance which they repair by means of materials taken from without. Inanimate bodies, even when they assume the fixed and definite form of crystals, are formed independently of all other bodies resembling them; they have from their commencement fixed forms, and increase simply by superposition of new layers. Every organised being is connected either directly or indirectly with a similar being, in the interior of which it first appeared in the form of a germ, then grew and acquired its definite form by intussusception.

In other words, filiation, nutrition, birth and death, are so many characteristics of the organised being, of which no trace is found in inanimate bodies. I agree with Pallas in making inanimate bodies compose the Inorganic Empire, and organised beings the Organic Empire.

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