Read Ebook: Chemical warfare by Fries Amos A Amos Alfred West Clarence J Clarence Jay

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Thus instead of gas warfare being the most horrible, it is the most humane where both sides are prepared for it, while against savage or unprepared peoples it can be made so humane that but very few casualties will result.

The development of methods of defense against gas will be discussed in a later chapter. It will suffice to say here that, in response to an appeal from Lord Kitchener, a temporary protection was quickly furnished the men. This was known as the "Black Veiling" respirator, and consisted of a cotton pad soaked in ordinary washing soda solution, and later, in a mixture of washing soda and "hypo," to which was added a little glycerine. These furnished a fair degree of protection to the men against chlorine, the only gas used in the early attacks.

PHOSGENE INTRODUCED

The use of chlorine alone continued until the introduction on December 19, 1915, of a mixture of phosgene with the chlorine. This mixture offered many advantages over the use of chlorine alone .

The Allies were able, through warning of the impending use of phosgene, to furnish a means of protection against it. It was at this time that the P and the PH helmets were devised, the cotton filling being impregnated with sodium phenolate and later with a mixture of sodium phenolate and hexamethylenetetramine. This helmet was used until the Standard Box Respirator was developed by the late Lt. Col. Harrison.

ALLIES ADOPT GAS

For a week or two the Allies were very hesitant about adopting gas warfare. However, when the repeated use of gas by the Germans made it evident that, in spite of what the Hague had to say about the matter, gas was to be a part, and as later developments showed, a very important part of modern warfare, they realized there was no choice on their part and that they had to retaliate in like manner. This decision was reached in May of 1915. It was followed by the organization of a Gas Service and intensive work on the part of chemists, engineers and physiologists. It was September 25, 1915, however, before the English were in a position to render a gas attack. From then on the Service grew in numbers and in importance, whether viewed from the standpoint of research, production, or field operations.

The Allies of course adopted not only chlorine but phosgene as well, since both were cheap, easy of preparation and effective. They felt during the early part of the War that they should adopt a substance that would kill instantly, and not one that would cause men to suffer either during the attack or through symptoms which would develop later in a hospital. For this reason a large amount of experimental work was carried out on hydrocyanic acid, particularly by the French. Since this gas has a very low density, it was necessary to mix with it substances which would tend to keep it close to the ground during the attack. Various mixtures, all called "vincennite," were prepared,--chloroform, arsenic trichloride and stannic chloride being used in varying proportions with the acid. It was some time before it was definitely learned that these mixtures were far from being successful, both from the standpoint of stability and of poisonous properties. While the French actually used these mixtures in constantly decreasing quantities on the field for a long time, they were ultimately abandoned, though not until American chemists had also carried out a large number of tests. However, following the recommendation of the American Gas Service in France in December, 1917, no vincennite was ever manufactured by the United States.

LACHRYMATORS

Almost simultaneously with the introduction of the gas wave attacks, in which liquefied gas under pressure was liberated from cylinders, came the use of lachrymatory or tear gases. These, while not very poisonous in the concentrations used, were very effective in incapacitating men through the effects produced upon their eyes. The low concentration required makes this form of gas warfare very economical as well as very effective. Even if a mask does completely protect against such compounds, their use compels an army to wear the mask indefinitely, with an expenditure of shell far short of that required if the much more deadly gases were used. Thus Fries estimates that one good lachrymatory shell will force wearing the mask over an area that would require 500 to 1000 phosgene shell of equal size to produce the same effect. While the number of actual casualties will be very much lower, the total effect considered from the standpoint of the expenditure of ammunition and of the objectives gained, will be just as valuable. So great is the harassing value of tear and irritant gases that the next war will see them used in quantities approximating that of the more poisonous gases.

The first lachrymator used was a mixture of the chlorides and bromides of toluene. Benzyl chloride and bromide are the only valuable substances in this mixture, the higher halogenated products having little or no lachrymatory value. Xylyl bromide is also effective. Chloroacetone and bromoacetone are also well known lachrymators, though they are expensive to manufacture and are none too stable. Because of this the French modified their preparation and obtained mixtures to which they gave the name "martonite." This is a mixture of 80 per cent bromoacetone and 20 per cent chloroacetone, and can be made with nearly complete utilization of the halogen. Methyl ethyl ketone may also be used, which gives rise to the "homomartonite" of the French. During the early part of the War, when bromine was so very expensive, the English developed ethyl iodoacetate. This was used with or without the addition of alcohol. Later the French developed bromobenzyl cyanide, C?H?CHCN. This was probably the best lachrymator developed during the War and put into large scale manufacture, though very little of it was available on the field of battle before the War ended. Chloroacetophenone would have played an important part had the War continued.

DISADVANTAGE OF WAVE ATTACKS

As will be discussed more fully in the chapters on "The Tactics of Gas," the wave attacks became relatively less important in 1916 through the use of gas in artillery shell. This was the result of many factors. Cloud gas attacks, as carried out under the old conditions, required a long time for the preliminary preparations, entailed a great deal of labor under the most difficult conditions, and were dangerous of execution even when weather conditions became suitable. The difficulties may be summarized as follows:

The heavy gas cylinders used required a great deal of transportation, and not only took the time of the Infantry but rendered surprise attacks difficult owing both to the time required and to the unusual activity behind the lines that became, with the development of aeroplanes, more and more readily discerned.

Few gases were available for wave attacks--chlorine, phosgene and, to a less extent, chloropicrin proving to be the only ones successfully used by either the Allies or the Germans. Hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide and hydrocyanic acid gas were suggested and tried, but were abandoned for one reason or another.

Gas cloud attacks were wholly dependent upon weather conditions. Not only were the velocity and direction of the wind highly important as regards the successful carrying of the wave over the enemy's line, but also to prevent danger to the troops making the attack due to a possible shift of the wind, which would carry the gas back over their own line.

The use of gas in artillery shell does not require especially trained troops inasmuch as gas shell are fired in the same manner as ordinary shell, and by the same gun crews. Moreover, since artillery gas shell are used generally only for ranges of a mile or more, the direction and velocity of the wind are of minor importance. Another factor which adds to the advantage of artillery shell in certain cases is the ability to land high concentrations of gas suddenly upon a distant target through employing a large number of the largest caliber guns available for firing gas.

Notwithstanding the above named disadvantages of wave attacks it was felt by the Americans from the beginning that successful gas cloud attacks were so fruitful in producing casualties and were such a strain upon those opposed to it, that they would continue. Furthermore, since artillery shell contain about 10 per cent gas, while gas cylinders may contain 50 per cent, or even more of the total weight of the cylinder, the efficiency of a cloud gas attack for at least the first mile of the enemy's territory is far greater than that of the artillery gas attack. It was accordingly felt that the only thing necessary to make cloud gas attacks highly useful and of frequent occurrence in the future was the development of mobile methods--methods whereby the gas attack could be launched on the surface of the ground and at short notice. For these reasons gas wave attacks may be expected to continue and to eventually reach a place of very decided importance in Chemical Warfare.

GAS SHELL

The firing of gas in artillery shell and in bombs has another great advantage over the wave attack just mentioned. There is a very great latitude in the choice of those gases which have a high boiling point or which, at ordinary temperatures, are solids. Mustard gas is an example of a liquid with a high boiling point, and diphenylchloroarsine an example of a gas that is ordinarily solid. For the above reason the term "gas warfare" was almost a misnomer at the close of the War, and today is true only in the sense that all the substances used are in a gaseous or finely divided condition immediately after the shell explode or at least when they reach the enemy.

PROJECTOR ATTACKS

STOKES' MORTAR

Another British invention is the Stokes' gun or trench mortar. The range of this gun is about 800 to 1000 yards. It is therefore effective only where the front lines are relatively close together. The shell consists of a case containing the high explosive, smoke material or gas, fitted to a base filled with a high charge of propelling powder. The shell is simply dropped into the gun. At the bottom of the gun there is a projection or stud that strikes the primer, setting off the small charge and expelling the projectile. In order to obtain any considerable concentration of gas in a particular locality, it is necessary to fire the Stokes' continuously for two to five minutes since the bomb contains only seven pounds of gas.

SUPERPALITE

It is believed that the first gas shell contained lachrymators or tear gases. Although the use of these shell continued up to and even after the introduction of mustard gas, they gradually fell off in number--the true poison gas shell taking their place. Towards the end of 1915 Auld states that the Germans were using chloromethyl chloroformate in shell. In 1916, during the battle of the Somme, palite was replaced by superpalite which is more toxic than palite, and about as toxic as phosgene. It has the advantage over phosgene of being much more persistent. In spite of the fact that American chemists were not able to manufacture superpalite on a large scale, or at least so successfully that it would compete in price with other war gases, the Germans used large quantities of it, alone and mixed with chloropicrin, in shell of every caliber up to and including the 15 cm. Howitzer.

CHLOROPICRIN

The next gas to be introduced was chloropicrin, trichloronitromethane or "vomiting gas." It has been stated that a mixture of chloropicrin and chlorine has been used in cloud attacks, but the high boiling point of chloropicrin makes its considerable use for this purpose very unlikely. The gas is moderately toxic and somewhat lachrymatory, but it was mainly used because of its peculiar property of causing vomiting when inhaled. Its value was further increased at first because it was particularly difficult to prepare a charcoal which would absorb it. Its peculiar properties are apt to cause it to be used for a long time.

SNEEZING GAS

During the summer of 1917 two new and very important gases were introduced, and, as before, by the Germans. One of these was diphenylchloroarsine, "sneezing gas" or "Blue Cross." This is a white solid which was placed in a bottle and embedded in TNT in the shell. Upon explosion of the shell the solid was atomized into very fine particles. Since the ordinary mask does not remove smoke or mists, the sneezing gas penetrates the mask and causes violent sneezing. The purpose, of course, is to compel the removal of the mask in an atmosphere of lethal gas. The latest type masks protect against this dust, but as it is extraordinarily powerful, its use will continue.

MUSTARD GAS

The second gas was dichloroethyl sulfide, mustard gas, Yellow Cross or Yperite. Mustard gas, as it is commonly designated, is probably the most important single poisonous substance used in gas warfare. It was first used by the Germans at Ypres, July 12, 1917. The amount of this gas used is illustrated by the fact that at Nieuport more than 50,000 shell were fired in one night, some of which contained nearly three gallons of the liquid.

Since then there has been no important advance so far as new gases are concerned. Various arsenic derivatives were prepared in the laboratory and tested on a small scale. The Germans did actually introduce ethyldichloroarsine and the Americans were considering methyldichloroarsine. Attempts were made to improve upon mustard gas but they were not successful.

LEWISITE

CAMOUFLAGE GASES

Considerable effort was spent on the question of camouflage gases. This involved two lines of research:

To prevent the recognition of a gas when actually present on the field, by masking its odor.

TABLE I CHEMICAL WARFARE GASES

To simulate the presence of a toxic gas. This may be done either by using a substance whose odor in the field strongly suggests that of the gas in question, or by so thoroughly associating a totally different odor with a particular "gas" in normal use that, when used alone, it still seems to imply the presence of that gas. This use of imitation gas would thus be of service in economizing the use of actual "gas" or in the preparation of surprise attacks.

While there was some success with this kind of "gas," very few such attacks were really carried out, and these were in connection with projector attacks.

GASES USED

Table I gives a list of all the gases used by the various armies, the nation which used them, the effect produced and the means of projection used.

Table II gives the properties of the more important war cases .

MARKINGS FOR AMERICAN SHELL

In selecting markings for American chemical shell, red bands were used to denote persistency, white bands to denote non-persistency and lethal properties, yellow bands to denote smoke, and purple bands to denote incendiary action. The number of bands indicates the relative strength of the property indicated; thus, three red bands denote a gas more persistent than one red band.

The following shell markings were actually used:

TABLE II

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE

Modern chemical warfare dates from April 22, 1915. Really, however, it may be said to have started somewhat earlier, for Germany undoubtedly had spent several months in perfecting a successful gas cylinder and a method of attack. The Allies, surprised by such a method of warfare, were forced to develop, under pressure, a method of defense, and then, when it was finally decided to retaliate, a method of gas warfare. "Offensive organizations were enrolled in the Engineer Corps of the two armies and trained for the purpose of using poisonous gases; the first operation of this kind was carried out by the British at the battle of Loos in September, 1915.

"Shortly after this the British Army in the field amalgamated all the offensive, defensive, advisory and supply activities connected with gas warfare and formed a 'Gas Service' with a Brigadier General as Director. This step was taken almost as a matter of necessity, and because of the continually increasing importance of the use of gas in the war ."

At once the accumulation of valuable information and experience was started. Later this was very willingly and freely placed at the disposal of American workers. Too much cannot be said about the hearty co-operation of England and France. Without it and the later exchange of information on all matters regarding gas warfare, the progress of gas research in all the allied countries would have been very much retarded.

While many branches of the American Army were engaged in following the progress of the war during 1915-1916, the growing importance of gas warfare was far from being appreciated. When the United States declared war on Germany April 6, 1917, there were a few scattered observations on gas warfare in various offices of the different branches, but there was no attempt at an organized survey of the field, while absolutely no effort had been made by the War Department to inaugurate research in a field that later had 2,000 men alone in pure research work. Equally important was the fact that no branch of the Service had any idea of the practical methods of gas warfare.

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